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Mastering Embedded Linux Programming
Mastering Embedded Linux Programming

Mastering Embedded Linux Programming: Harness the power of Linux to create versatile and robust embedded solutions

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Mastering Embedded Linux Programming

Chapter 2. Learning About Toolchains

The toolchain is the first element of embedded Linux and the starting point of your project. The choices you make at this early stage will have a profound impact on the final outcome. Your toolchain should be capable of making effective use of your hardware by using the optimum instruction set for your processor, using the floating point unit if there is one, and so on. It should support the languages that you require and have a solid implementation of POSIX and other system interfaces. Not only that, but it should be updated when security flaws are discovered or bugs found. Finally, it should be constant throughout the project. In other words, once you have chosen your toolchain it is important to stick with it. Changing compilers and development libraries in an inconsistent way during a project will lead to subtle bugs.

Obtaining a toolchain is as simple as downloading and installing a package. But, the toolchain itself is a complex thing...

What is a toolchain?

A toolchain is the set of tools that compiles source code into executables that can run on your target device, and includes a compiler, a linker, and run-time libraries. Initially, you need one to build the other three elements of an embedded Linux system: the bootloader, the kernel, and the root filesystem. It has to be able to compile code written in assembly, C, and C++ since these are the languages used in the base open source packages.

Usually, toolchains for Linux are based on components from the GNU project (http://www.gnu.org) and that is still true in the majority of cases at the time of writing. However, over the past few years, the Clang compiler and the associated LLVM project (http://llvm.org) have progressed to the point that it is now a viable alternative to a GNU toolchain. One major distinction between LLVM and GNU-based toolchains is in the licensing; LLVM has a BSD license, while GNU has the GPL. There are some technical advantages to Clang as well...

Types of toolchain - native versus cross toolchain

For our purposes, there are two types of toolchain:

  • Native: This toolchain runs on the same type of system, sometimes the same actual system, as the programs it generates. This is the usual case for desktops and servers, and it is becoming popular on certain classes of embedded devices. The Raspberry Pi running Debian for ARM, for example, has self-hosted native compilers.
  • Cross: This toolchain runs on a different type of system than the target, allowing the development to be done on a fast desktop PC and then loaded onto the embedded target for testing.

Almost all embedded Linux development is done using a cross development toolchain, partly because most embedded devices are not well suited to program development since they lack computing power, memory, and storage, but also because it keeps the host and target environments separate. The latter point is especially important when the host and the target are using the same architecture, X86_64...

Choosing the C library

The programming interface to the Unix operating system is defined in the C language, which is now defined by the POSIX standards. The C library is the implementation of that interface; it is the gateway to the kernel for Linux programs, as shown in the following diagram. Even if you are writing programs in another language, maybe Java or Python, the respective run-time support libraries will have to call the C library eventually:

Choosing the C library

The C library is the gateway to the kernel for applications

Whenever the C library needs the services of the kernel it will use the kernel system call interface to transition between user space and kernel space. It is possible to bypass the C library by making kernel system calls directly, but that is a lot of trouble and almost never necessary.

There are several C libraries to choose from. The main options are as follows:

Finding a toolchain

You have three choices for your cross development toolchain: you may find a ready built toolchain that matches your needs, you can use the one generated by an embedded build tool which is covered in Chapter 6, Selecting a Build System, or you can create one yourself as described later in this chapter.

A pre-built cross toolchain is an attractive option in that you only have to download and install it, but you are limited to the configuration of that particular toolchain and you are dependent on the person or organization you got it from. Most likely, it will be one of these:

  • SoC or board vendor. Most vendors offer a Linux toolchain.
  • A consortium dedicated to providing system-level support for a given architecture. For example, Linaro, (https://www.linaro.org) have pre-built toolchains for the ARM architecture.
  • Third-party Linux tool vendors such as Mentor Graphics, TimeSys, or MontaVista.
  • Cross tool packages for your desktop Linux distribution, for example, Debian-based distributions...

Anatomy of a toolchain

To get an idea of what is in a typical toolchain, I want to examine the crosstool-NG toolchain you have just created.

The toolchain is in the directory ~/x-tools/arm-cortex_a8-linux-gnueabihf/bin. In there you will find the cross compiler, arm-cortex_a8-linux-gnueabihf-gcc. To make use of it, you need to add the directory to your path using the following command:

$ PATH=~/x-tools/arm-cortex_a8-linux-gnueabihf/bin:$PATH

Now you can take a simple hello world program that looks like this:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main (int argc, char *argv[])
{
  printf ("Hello, world!\n");
  return 0;
}

And compile it like this:

$ arm-cortex_a8-linux-gnueabihf-gcc helloworld.c -o helloworld

You can confirm that it has been cross compiled by using the file command to print the type of the file:

$ file helloworld
helloworld: ELF 32-bit LSB executable, ARM, version 1 (SYSV), dynamically linked (uses shared libs), for GNU/Linux 3.15.4, not stripped

Finding...

What is a toolchain?


A toolchain is the set of tools that compiles source code into executables that can run on your target device, and includes a compiler, a linker, and run-time libraries. Initially, you need one to build the other three elements of an embedded Linux system: the bootloader, the kernel, and the root filesystem. It has to be able to compile code written in assembly, C, and C++ since these are the languages used in the base open source packages.

Usually, toolchains for Linux are based on components from the GNU project (http://www.gnu.org) and that is still true in the majority of cases at the time of writing. However, over the past few years, the Clang compiler and the associated LLVM project (http://llvm.org) have progressed to the point that it is now a viable alternative to a GNU toolchain. One major distinction between LLVM and GNU-based toolchains is in the licensing; LLVM has a BSD license, while GNU has the GPL. There are some technical advantages to Clang as well...

Types of toolchain - native versus cross toolchain


For our purposes, there are two types of toolchain:

  • Native: This toolchain runs on the same type of system, sometimes the same actual system, as the programs it generates. This is the usual case for desktops and servers, and it is becoming popular on certain classes of embedded devices. The Raspberry Pi running Debian for ARM, for example, has self-hosted native compilers.

  • Cross: This toolchain runs on a different type of system than the target, allowing the development to be done on a fast desktop PC and then loaded onto the embedded target for testing.

Almost all embedded Linux development is done using a cross development toolchain, partly because most embedded devices are not well suited to program development since they lack computing power, memory, and storage, but also because it keeps the host and target environments separate. The latter point is especially important when the host and the target are using the same architecture, X86_64...

Choosing the C library


The programming interface to the Unix operating system is defined in the C language, which is now defined by the POSIX standards. The C library is the implementation of that interface; it is the gateway to the kernel for Linux programs, as shown in the following diagram. Even if you are writing programs in another language, maybe Java or Python, the respective run-time support libraries will have to call the C library eventually:

The C library is the gateway to the kernel for applications

Whenever the C library needs the services of the kernel it will use the kernel system call interface to transition between user space and kernel space. It is possible to bypass the C library by making kernel system calls directly, but that is a lot of trouble and almost never necessary.

There are several C libraries to choose from. The main options are as follows:

Finding a toolchain


You have three choices for your cross development toolchain: you may find a ready built toolchain that matches your needs, you can use the one generated by an embedded build tool which is covered in Chapter 6, Selecting a Build System, or you can create one yourself as described later in this chapter.

A pre-built cross toolchain is an attractive option in that you only have to download and install it, but you are limited to the configuration of that particular toolchain and you are dependent on the person or organization you got it from. Most likely, it will be one of these:

  • SoC or board vendor. Most vendors offer a Linux toolchain.

  • A consortium dedicated to providing system-level support for a given architecture. For example, Linaro, (https://www.linaro.org) have pre-built toolchains for the ARM architecture.

  • Third-party Linux tool vendors such as Mentor Graphics, TimeSys, or MontaVista.

  • Cross tool packages for your desktop Linux distribution, for example, Debian-based distributions...

Anatomy of a toolchain


To get an idea of what is in a typical toolchain, I want to examine the crosstool-NG toolchain you have just created.

The toolchain is in the directory ~/x-tools/arm-cortex_a8-linux-gnueabihf/bin. In there you will find the cross compiler, arm-cortex_a8-linux-gnueabihf-gcc. To make use of it, you need to add the directory to your path using the following command:

$ PATH=~/x-tools/arm-cortex_a8-linux-gnueabihf/bin:$PATH

Now you can take a simple hello world program that looks like this:

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main (int argc, char *argv[])
{
  printf ("Hello, world!\n");
  return 0;
}

And compile it like this:

$ arm-cortex_a8-linux-gnueabihf-gcc helloworld.c -o helloworld

You can confirm that it has been cross compiled by using the file command to print the type of the file:

$ file helloworld
helloworld: ELF 32-bit LSB executable, ARM, version 1 (SYSV), dynamically linked (uses shared libs), for GNU/Linux 3.15.4, not stripped

Finding out...

Other tools in the toolchain


The following table shows various other commands in the toolchain together with a brief description:

Command

Description

addr2line

Converts program addresses into filenames and numbers by reading the debug symbol tables in an executable file. It is very useful when decoding addresses printed out in a system crash report.

ar

The archive utility is used to create static libraries.

as

This is the GNU assembler.

c++filt

This is used to demangle C++ and Java symbols.

cpp

This is the C preprocessor, and is used to expand #define, #include, and other similar directives. You seldom need to use this by itself.

elfedit

This is used to update the ELF header of ELF files.

g++

This is the GNU C++ front-end, which assumes source files contain C++ code.

gcc

This is the GNU C front-end, which assumes source files contain C code.

gcov

This is a code coverage tool.

gdb

This is the GNU debugger.

gprof

This is a program profiling tool.

ld

This is the GNU...

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Key benefits

  • Create efficient and secure embedded devices using Linux
  • Minimize project costs by using open source tools and programs
  • Explore each component technology in depth, using sample implementations as a guide

Description

Mastering Embedded Linux Programming takes you through the product cycle and gives you an in-depth description of the components and options that are available at each stage. You will begin by learning about toolchains, bootloaders, the Linux kernel, and how to configure a root filesystem to create a basic working device. You will then learn how to use the two most commonly used build systems, Buildroot and Yocto, to speed up and simplify the development process. Building on this solid base, the next section considers how to make best use of raw NAND/NOR flash memory and managed flash eMMC chips, including mechanisms for increasing the lifetime of the devices and to perform reliable in-field updates. Next, you need to consider what techniques are best suited to writing applications for your device. We will then see how functions are split between processes and the usage of POSIX threads, which have a big impact on the responsiveness and performance of the final device The closing sections look at the techniques available to developers for profiling and tracing applications and kernel code using perf and ftrace.

Who is this book for?

This book is ideal for Linux developers and system programmers who are already familiar with embedded systems and who want to know how to create best-in-class devices. A basic understanding of C programming and experience with systems programming is needed.

What you will learn

  • Understand the role of the Linux kernel and select an appropriate role for your application
  • Use Buildroot and Yocto to create embedded Linux systems quickly and efficiently
  • Create customized bootloaders using U-Boot
  • Employ perf and ftrace to identify performance bottlenecks
  • Understand device trees and make changes to accommodate new hardware on your device
  • Write applications that interact with Linux device drivers
  • Design and write multi-threaded applications using POSIX threads
  • Measure real-time latencies and tune the Linux kernel to minimize them
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Publication date : Dec 29, 2015
Length: 418 pages
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Table of Contents

15 Chapters
1. Starting Out Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
2. Learning About Toolchains Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
3. All About Bootloaders Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
4. Porting and Configuring the Kernel Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
5. Building a Root Filesystem Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
6. Selecting a Build System Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
7. Creating a Storage Strategy Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
8. Introducing Device Drivers Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
9. Starting up - the init Program Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
10. Learning About Processes and Threads Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
11. Managing Memory Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
12. Debugging with GDB Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
13. Profiling and Tracing Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
14. Real-time Programming Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Index Chevron down icon Chevron up icon

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S. Misir Aug 15, 2017
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The author's knowledge on Embedded Linux is unsurpassed. Chris Simmonds has the unique ability of breaking down even the most complicated concepts of the Linux Kernel to easily understandable levels.
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Peter Roberts Apr 14, 2016
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Well written and extremely useful.One thing to note is that the examples are intended for Ubuntu 14.04 running QEMU and the Beaglebone Black, so you'd probably do well to have those things set up.
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SREEKESH S May 29, 2017
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Author introduces a bottom up approach for building an embedded Linux system. He starts with setting up a toolchain, compiling bootloader and kernel, and advances towards developing applications, and briefly touches device drivers. It provides a big picture of the embedded Linux ecosystem. If the reader wants to study any specific topic in depth, he needs to look for other resources. Author assumes familiarity in using Linux from the reader. Examples are given for beaglebone. It is recommended to try out the exercises which author explains well.
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Alina Jan 17, 2017
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The practical work is based on the Beaglebone Black board and qemu. The book helps build knowledge gradually, starting from the basics to the more complex subjects. As someone who has worked with Linux before, I found it easy to read and follow.
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Perry Nally Feb 29, 2016
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Incredible book. Very helpful for anyone needing to know about embedded Linux. One thing I loved is that you learn about the toolchains and setting one up for your appropriate shop. Very useful for the programmer that's never done embedded linux before and a perfect reference for those that have. Big thank you to this author!
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