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Mastering PostgreSQL 10
Mastering PostgreSQL 10

Mastering PostgreSQL 10: Expert techniques on PostgreSQL 10 development and administration

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Mastering PostgreSQL 10

Understanding Transactions and Locking

Locking is an important topic in any kind of database. It is not enough to understand just how it works to write proper or better applications; it is also essential from a performance point of view. Without handling locks properly, your applications might not only be slow, they might also be wrong and behave in very unexpected ways. In my opinion, locking is the key to performance and having a good overview will certainly help. Therefore, understanding locking and transaction is important for administrators and developers alike. In this chapter, you will learn the following topics:

  • Working with PostgreSQL transactions
  • Understanding basic locking
  • Making use of FOR SHARE and FOR UPDATE
  • Understanding transaction isolation levels
  • Considering SSI transactions
  • Observing deadlocks and similar issues
  • Optimizing storage and managing cleanups

At...

Working with PostgreSQL transactions

PostgreSQL provides you with a highly advanced transaction machinery that offers countless features to developers and administrators alike. In this section, it is time to look at the basic concept of transactions.

The first important thing to know is that in PostgreSQL, everything is a transaction. If you send a simple query to the server, it is already a transaction. Here is an example:

test=# \x 
Expanded display is on. 
test=# SELECT now(), now();

now | now
-------------------------------+------------------------------
2017-08-24 16:03:27.174253+02 | 2017-08-24 16:03:27.174253+02
(1 row)

In this case, the SELECT statement will be a separate transaction. If the same command is executed again, different timestamps will be returned.

Keep in mind that the now() function will return the transaction...

Understanding basic locking

In this section, you will learn basic locking mechanisms. The goal is to understand how locking works in general and how to get simple applications right.

To show how things work, a simple table can be created. For demonstration purposes, I will add one row to the table:

test=# CREATE TABLE  t_test (id int);  
CREATE TABLE 
test=# INSERT INTO t_test VALUES (1); INSERT 0 1

The first important thing is that tables can be read concurrently. Many users reading the same data at the same time won't block each other. This allows PostgreSQL to handle thousands of users without problems.

Multiple users can read the same data at the same time without blocking each other.

The question now is: what happens if reads and writes occur at the same time? Here is an example. Let us assume that the table contains one row and its id = 0:

Transaction 1

Transaction...

Making use of FOR SHARE and FOR UPDATE

Sometimes, data is selected from the database; then some processing happens in the application and, finally, some changes are made back on the database side. This is a classic example of SELECT FOR UPDATE.

Here is an example:

BEGIN;
SELECT * FROM invoice WHERE processed = false; ** application magic will happen here ** UPDATE invoice SET processed = true ... COMMIT;

The problem here is that two people might select the same unprocessed data. Changes made to these processed rows will then be overwritten. In short, a race condition will occur.

To solve this problem, developers can make use of SELECT FOR UPDATE. Here is how it works:

BEGIN; 
SELECT * FROM invoice WHERE processed = false FOR UPDATE; 
** application magic  will  happen here  **  
UPDATE invoice SET processed = true ...  
COMMIT; 

The SELECT FOR UPDATE will lock rows...

Understanding transaction isolation levels

Up until now, you have seen how to handle locking as well as some basic concurrency. In this section, you will learn transaction isolation. To me, this is one of the most neglected topics in modern software development. Only a small fraction of software developers are actually aware of this issue, which in turn leads to mind-boggling bugs.

Here is an example of what can happen:

Transaction 1

Transaction 2

BEGIN;

SELECT sum(balance) FROM t_account;

User will see 300

BEGIN;

INSERT INTO t_account (balance) VALUES (100);

COMMIT;

SELECT sum(balance) FROM t_account;

User will see 400

COMMIT;

Most users would actually expect the left transaction to always return 300 regardless of the second transaction. However, this is not true. By default, PostgreSQL runs in the READ COMMITTED transaction...

Observing deadlocks and similar issues

Deadlocks are an important issue and can happen in every database I am aware of. Basically, a deadlock will happen if two transactions have to wait on each other.

In this section, you will see how this can happen. Let's suppose we have a table containing two rows:

CREATE TABLE t_deadlock (id int); 
INSERT INTO t_deadlock VALUES (1), (2); 

The next listing shows what can happen:

Transaction 1

Transaction 2

BEGIN;

BEGIN;

UPDATE t_deadlock

SET id = id * 10

WHERE id = 1;

UPDATE t_deadlock

SET id = id * 10

WHERE id = 2;

UPDATE t_deadlock

SET id = id * 10

WHERE id = 2;

Waiting on transaction 2

UPDATE t_deadlock

SET id = id * 10

WHERE id = 1;

Waiting on transaction 2

Waiting on transaction 1

Deadlock will be resolved after one second

(deadlock_timeout)

COMMIT;

ROLLBACK;

As soon as the deadlock...

Utilizing advisory locks

PostgreSQL has a highly efficient and sophisticated transaction machinery that is capable of handling locks in a really fine-grained and efficient way. Some years ago, some people came up with the idea of using this code to synchronize applications with each other.

Thus, advisory locks were born.

When using advisory locks, it is important to mention that they won't go away on COMMIT as normal locks do. Therefore, it is really important to make sure that unlocking is done properly and in a totally reliable way.

If you decide to use an advisory lock, what you really lock is a number. So, this is not about rows or data; it is really just a number. Here is how it works:

Session 1

Session 2

BEGIN;

SELECT pg_advisory_lock(15);

SELECT pg_advisory_lock(15);

It has to wait

COMMIT;

It still has to wait

SELECT pg_advisory_unlock...

Optimizing storage and managing cleanup

Transactions are an integral part of the PostgreSQL system. However, transactions come with a small price tag attached. As already shown in this chapter, it can happen that concurrent users will be presented with different data. Not everybody will get the same data returned by a query. In addition to this, DELETE and UPDATE are not allowed to actually overwrite data as ROLLBACK would not work. If you happen to be in the middle of a large DELETE operation, you cannot be sure whether you will be able to COMMIT or not. In addition to this, data is still visible while you perform DELETE, and sometimes data is even visible once your modification has long since finished.

Consequently, this means that cleanup has to happen asynchronously. A transaction cannot clean up its own mess and COMMIT/ROLLBACK might be too early to take care of dead rows...

Summary

In this chapter, you learned transactions, locking and its logical implications, and the general architecture the PostgreSQL transaction machinery can have for storage, concurrency, and administration. You saw how rows are locked and which features are available in PostgreSQL.

In Chapter 3, Making use of Indexes, you will learn one of the most important topics in database work: indexing. You will learn about the PostgreSQL query optimizer as well as various types of indexes and their behavior.

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Key benefits

  • Your one-stop guide to mastering advanced concepts in PostgreSQL 10 with ease
  • Master query optimization, replication, and high availability with PostgreSQL
  • Extend the functionalities of your PostgreSQL instance to suit your organizational needs with minimal effort

Description

PostgreSQL is an open source database used for handling large datasets (big data) and as a JSON document database. This book highlights the newly introduced features in PostgreSQL 10, and shows you how you can build better PostgreSQL applications, and administer your PostgreSQL database more efficiently. We begin by explaining advanced database design concepts in PostgreSQL 10, along with indexing and query optimization. You will also see how to work with event triggers and perform concurrent transactions and table partitioning, along with exploring SQL and server tuning. We will walk you through implementing advanced administrative tasks such as server maintenance and monitoring, replication, recovery, high availability, and much more. You will understand common and not-so-common troubleshooting problems and how you can overcome them. By the end of this book, you will have an expert-level command of advanced database functionalities and will be able to implement advanced administrative tasks with PostgreSQL 10.

Who is this book for?

If you are a PostgreSQL data architect or an administrator and want to understand how to implement advanced functionalities and master complex administrative tasks with PostgreSQL 10, then this book is perfect for you. Prior experience of administrating a PostgreSQL database and a working knowledge of SQL are required to make the best use of this book.

What you will learn

  • Get to grips with the advanced features of PostgreSQL 10 and handle advanced SQL
  • Make use of the indexing features in PostgreSQL and fine-tune the performance of your queries
  • Work with stored procedures and manage backup and recovery
  • Master replication and failover techniques
  • Troubleshoot your PostgreSQL instance for solutions to common and not-so-common problems
  • Learn how to migrate your database from MySQL and Oracle to PostgreSQL without any hassle
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Length: 428 pages
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Table of Contents

14 Chapters
PostgreSQL Overview Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Understanding Transactions and Locking Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Making Use of Indexes Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Handling Advanced SQL Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Log Files and System Statistics Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Optimizing Queries for Good Performance Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Writing Stored Procedures Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Managing PostgreSQL Security Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Handling Backup and Recovery Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Making Sense of Backups and Replication Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Deciding on Useful Extensions Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Troubleshooting PostgreSQL Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Migrating to PostgreSQL Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Other Books You May Enjoy Chevron down icon Chevron up icon

Customer reviews

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vishal khanna Jun 20, 2018
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Cons1. Content in book is not complete.2. I don't feel confidence on any topic covered in the book.3. Over pricedPros1. Index is good enough to impress reader to buy this book.
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