In modern image editing tools, such as Photoshop, color dodging of an image A with a mask B is implemented as the following ternary statement acting on every pixel index, called idx:

((B[idx] == 255) ? B[idx] : min(255, ((A[idx] << 8) / (255-B[idx]))))

This essentially divides the value of an A[idx] image pixel by the inverse of the B[idx] mask pixel value, while making sure that the resulting pixel value will be in the range of [0, 255] and that we do not divide by zero.

We could translate this into the following naïve Python function, which accepts two OpenCV matrices (image and mask) and returns the blended image:

def dodgeNaive(image, mask):
    # determine the shape of the input image
    width,height = image.shape[:2]

    # prepare output argument with same size as image
    blend = np.zeros((width,height), np.uint8)

    for col in xrange(width):
        for row in xrange(height):

            # shift image pixel value by 8 bits
            # divide by the inverse of the mask
            tmp = (image[c,r] << 8) / (255.-mask)

            # make sure resulting value stays within bounds
            if tmp > 255:
                tmp = 255
            blend[c,r] = tmp
    return blend

As you might have guessed, although this code might be functionally correct, it will undoubtedly be horrendously slow. Firstly, the function uses for loops, which are almost always a bad idea in Python. Secondly, NumPy arrays (the underlying format of OpenCV images in Python) are optimized for array calculations, so accessing and modifying each image[c,r] pixel separately will be really slow.

Instead, we should realize that the <<8 operation is the same as multiplying the pixel value with the number 2^8=256, and that pixel-wise division can be achieved with the cv2.divide function. Thus, an improved version of our dodge function could look like this:

import cv2

def dodgeV2(image, mask):
    return cv2.divide(image, 255-mask, scale=256)

We have reduced the dodge function to a single line! The dodgeV2 function produces the same result as dodgeNaive but is orders of magnitude faster. In addition, cv2.divide automatically takes care of division by zero, making the result 0 where 255-mask is zero.

Now, it is straightforward to implement an analogous burning function, which divides the inverted image by the inverted mask and inverts the result:

import cv2

def burnV2(image, mask):
    return 255 – cv2.divide(255-image, 255-mask, scale=256)

With these tricks in our bag, we are now ready to take a look at the entire procedure. The final code will be in its own class in the filters module. After we have converted a color image to grayscale, we aim to blend this image with its blurred negative:

The resulting image looks like this:

Did you notice that our code can be optimized further?

A Gaussian blur is basically a convolution with a Gaussian function. One of the beauties of convolutions is their associative property. This means that it does not matter whether we first invert the image and then blur it, or first blur the image and then invert it.

"Then what matters?" you might ask. Well, if we start with a blurred image and pass its inverse to the dodgeV2 function, then within that function, the image will get inverted again (the 255-mask part), essentially yielding the original image. If we get rid of these redundant operations, an optimized render method would look like this:

def render(img_rgb):
    img_gray = cv2.cvtColor(img_rgb, cv2.COLOR_BGR2GRAY)
    img_blur = cv2.GaussianBlur(img_gray, (21,21), 0, 0)
    img_blend = cv2.divide(img_gray, img_blur, scale=256)
    return img_blend

For kicks and giggles, we want to lightly blend our transformed image (img_blend) with a background image (self.canvas) that makes it look as if we drew the image on a canvas:

if self.canvas is not None:
    img_blend = cv2.multiply(img_blend, self.canvas, scale=1./256)
return cv2.cvtColor(img_blend, cv2.COLOR_GRAY2BGR)

And we're done! The final output looks like what is shown here:

A curve filter is essentially a function, y = f(x), that maps an input pixel value x to an output pixel value y. The curve is parameterized by a set of n+1 anchor points, as follows: {(x_0,y_0), (x_1,y_1), ..., (x_n, y_n)}.

Each anchor point is a pair of numbers that represent the input and output pixel values. For example, the pair (30, 90) means that an input pixel value of 30 is increased to an output value of 90. Values between anchor points are interpolated along a smooth curve (hence the name curve filter).

Such a filter can be applied to any image channel, be it a single grayscale channel or the R, G, and B channels of an RGB color image. Thus, for our purposes, all values of x and y must stay between 0 and 255.

For example, if we wanted to make a grayscale image slightly brighter, we could use a curve filter with the following set of control points: {(0,0), (128, 192), (255,255)}. This would mean that all input pixel values except 0 and 255 would be increased slightly, resulting in an overall brightening effect of the image.

If we want such filters to produce natural-looking images, it is important to respect the following two rules:

Curve filters are computationally expensive, because the values of f(x) must be interpolated whenever x does not coincide with one of the prespecified anchor points. Performing this computation for every pixel of every image frame that we encounter would have dramatic effects on performance.

Instead, we make use of a lookup table. Since there are only 256 possible pixel values for our purposes, we need to calculate f(x) only for all the 256 possible values of x. Interpolation is handled by the UnivariateSpline function of the scipy.interpolate module, as shown in the following code snippet:

from scipy.interpolate import UnivariateSpline

def _create_LUT_8UC1(self, x, y):
  spl = UnivariateSpline(x, y)
  return spl(xrange(256))

The return argument of the function is a 256-element list that contains the interpolated f(x) values for every possible value of x.

All we need to do now is come up with a set of anchor points, (x_i, y_i), and we are ready to apply the filter to a grayscale input image (img_gray):

import cv2
import numpy as np

x = [0, 128, 255]
y = [0, 192, 255]
myLUT = _create_LUT_8UC1(x, y)
img_curved = cv2.LUT(img_gray, myLUT).astype(np.uint8)

The result looks like this (the original image is on the left, and the transformed image is on the right):

With the mechanism to quickly apply a generic curve filter to any image channel in place, we now turn to the question of how to manipulate the perceived color temperature of an image. Again, the final code will have its own class in the filters module.

If you have a minute to spare, I advise you to play around with the different curve settings for a while. You can choose any number of anchor points and apply the curve filter to any image channel you can think of (red, green, blue, hue, saturation, brightness, lightness, and so on). You could even combine multiple channels, or decrease one and shift another to a desired region. What will the result look like?

However, if the number of possibilities dazzles you, take a more conservative approach. First, by making use of our _create_LUT_8UC1 function developed in the preceding steps, let's define two generic curve filters, one that (by trend) increases all pixel values of a channel, and one that generally decreases them:

class WarmingFilter:

  def __init__(self):
    self.incr_ch_lut = _create_LUT_8UC1([0, 64, 128, 192, 256],
      [0, 70, 140, 210, 256])
    self.decr_ch_lut = _create_LUT_8UC1([0, 64, 128, 192, 256],
      [0, 30,  80, 120, 192])

The easiest way to make an image appear as if it was taken on a hot, sunny day (maybe close to sunset), is to increase the reds in the image and make the colors appear vivid by increasing the color saturation. We will achieve this in two steps:

The result looks like what is shown here:

Analogously, we can define a cooling filter that increases the pixel values in the B channel, decreases the pixel values in the R channel of an RGB image, converts the image into the HSV color space, and decreases color saturation via the S channel:

class CoolingFilter:

    def render(self, img_rgb):

        c_r, c_g, c_b = cv2.split(img_rgb)
        c_r = cv2.LUT(c_r, self.decr_ch_lut).astype(np.uint8)
        c_b = cv2.LUT(c_b, self.incr_ch_lut).astype(np.uint8)
        img_rgb = cv2.merge((c_r, c_g, c_b))

        # decrease color saturation
        c_h, c_s, c_v = cv2.split(cv2.cvtColor(img_rgb, cv2.COLOR_RGB2HSV))
        c_s = cv2.LUT(c_s, self.decr_ch_lut).astype(np.uint8)
        return cv2.cvtColor(cv2.merge((c_h, c_s, c_v)), cv2.COLOR_HSV2RGB)

Now, the result looks like this:

A strong bilateral filter is ideally suitable for converting an RGB image into a color painting or a cartoon, because it smoothens flat regions while keeping edges sharp. It seems that the only drawback of this filter is its computational cost, as it is orders of magnitude slower than other smoothing operations, such as a Gaussian blur.

The first measure to take when we need to reduce the computational cost is to perform an operation on an image of low resolution. In order to downscale an RGB image (imgRGB) to a quarter of its size (reduce the width and height to half), we could use cv2.resize:

import cv2

img_small = cv2.resize(img_rgb, (0,0), fx=0.5, fy=0.5)

A pixel value in the resized image will correspond to the pixel average of a small neighborhood in the original image. However, this process may produce image artifacts, which is also known as aliasing. While this is bad enough on its own, the effect might be enhanced by subsequent processing, for example, edge detection.

A better alternative might be to use the Gaussian pyramid for downscaling (again to a quarter of the original size). The Gaussian pyramid consists of a blur operation that is performed before the image is resampled, which reduces aliasing effects:

img_small = cv2.pyrDown(img_rgb)

However, even at this scale, the bilateral filter might still be too slow to run in real time. Another trick is to repeatedly (say, five times) apply a small bilateral filter to the image instead of applying a large bilateral filter once:

num_iter = 5
for _ in xrange(num_iter):
    img_small = cv2.bilateralFilter(img_small, d=9, sigmaColor=9, sigmaSpace=7)

The three parameters in cv2.bilateralFilter control the diameter of the pixel neighborhood (d) and the standard deviation of the filter in the color space (sigmaColor) and coordinate space (sigmaSpace).

Don't forget to restore the image to its original size:

img_rgb = cv2.pyrUp(img_small)

The result looks like a blurred color painting of a creepy programmer, as follows:

Again, when it comes to edge detection, the challenge often does not lie in how the underlying algorithm works, but instead which particular algorithm to choose for the task at hand. You might already be familiar with a variety of edge detectors. For example, Canny edge detection (cv2.Canny) provides a relatively simple and effective method to detect edges in an image, but it is susceptible to noise.

The Sobel operator (cv2.Sobel) can reduce such artifacts, but it is not rotationally symmetric. The Scharr operator (cv2.Scharr) was targeted at correcting this, but only looks at the first image derivative. If you are interested, there are even more operators for you, such as the Laplacian or ridge operator (which includes the second derivative), but they are far more complex. And in the end, for our specific purposes, they might not look better, maybe because they are as susceptible to lighting conditions as any other algorithm.

For the purpose of this project, we will choose a function that might not even be associated with conventional edge detection—cv2.adaptiveThreshold. Like cv2.threshold, this function uses a threshold pixel value to convert a grayscale image into a binary image. That is, if a pixel value in the original image is above the threshold, then the pixel value in the final image will be 255. Otherwise, it will be 0. However, the beauty of adaptive thresholding is that it does not look at the overall properties of the image. Instead, it detects the most salient features in each small neighborhood independently, without regard to the global image optima. This makes the algorithm extremely robust to lighting conditions, which is exactly what we want when we seek to draw bold, black outlines around objects and people in a cartoon.

However, it also makes the algorithm susceptible to noise. To counteract this, we will preprocess the image with a median filter. A median filter does what its name suggests; it replaces each pixel value with the median value of all the pixels in a small pixel neighborhood. We first convert the RGB image (img_rgb) to grayscale (img_gray) and then apply a median blur with a seven-pixel local neighborhood:

# convert to grayscale and apply median blur
img_gray = cv2.cvtColor(img_rgb, cv2.COLOR_RGB2GRAY)
img_blur = cv2.medianBlur(img_gray, 7)

After reducing the noise, it is now safe to detect and enhance the edges using adaptive thresholding. Even if there is some image noise left, the cv2.ADAPTIVE_THRESH_MEAN_C algorithm with blockSize=9 will ensure that the threshold is applied to the mean of a 9 x 9 neighborhood minus C=2:

img_edge = cv2.adaptiveThreshold(img_blur, 255, cv2.ADAPTIVE_THRESH_MEAN_C, cv2.THRESH_BINARY, 9, 2)

The result of the adaptive thresholding looks like this:

The last step is to combine the two. Simply fuse the two effects together into a single image using cv2.bitwise_and. The complete function is as follows:

def render(self, img_rgb):
    numDownSamples = 2 # number of downscaling steps
    numBilateralFilters = 7  # number of bilateral filtering steps

    # -- STEP 1 --
    # downsample image using Gaussian pyramid
    img_color = img_rgb
    for _ in xrange(numDownSamples):
        img_color = cv2.pyrDown(img_color)

    # repeatedly apply small bilateral filter instead of applying
    # one large filter
    for _ in xrange(numBilateralFilters):
        img_color = cv2.bilateralFilter(img_color, 9, 9, 7)

    # upsample image to original size
    for _ in xrange(numDownSamples):
        img_color = cv2.pyrUp(img_color)

    # -- STEPS 2 and 3 --
    # convert to grayscale and apply median blur
    img_gray = cv2.cvtColor(img_rgb, cv2.COLOR_RGB2GRAY)
    img_blur = cv2.medianBlur(img_gray, 7)

    # -- STEP 4 --
    # detect and enhance edges
    img_edge = cv2.adaptiveThreshold(img_blur, 255,
        cv2.ADAPTIVE_THRESH_MEAN_C, cv2.THRESH_BINARY, 9, 2)

    # -- STEP 5 --
    # convert back to color so that it can be bit-ANDed
    # with color image
    img_edge = cv2.cvtColor(img_edge, cv2.COLOR_GRAY2RGB)
    return cv2.bitwise_and(img_color, img_edge)

The result looks like what is shown here:

To run the application, we will turn to the chapter1.py. script, which we will start by importing all the necessary modules:

import numpy as np

import wx
import cv2

We will also have to import a generic GUI layout (from gui) and all the designed image effects (from filters):

from gui import BaseLayout
from filters import PencilSketch, WarmingFilter, CoolingFilter, Cartoonizer

OpenCV provides a straightforward way to access a computer's webcam or camera device. The following code snippet opens the default camera ID (0) of a computer using cv2.VideoCapture:

def main():
    capture = cv2.VideoCapture(0)

On some platforms, the first call to cv2.VideoCapture fails to open a channel. In that case, we provide a workaround by opening the channel ourselves:

if not(capture.isOpened()):
    capture.open() 

In order to give our application a fair chance to run in real time, we will limit the size of the video stream to 640 x 480 pixels:

capture.set(cv2.cv.CV_CAP_PROP_FRAME_WIDTH, 640)
capture.set(cv2.cv.CV_CAP_PROP_FRAME_HEIGHT, 480)

Then the capture stream can be passed to our GUI application, which is an instance of the FilterLayout class:

    # start graphical user interface
    app = wx.App()
    layout = FilterLayout(None, -1, 'Fun with Filters', capture)
    layout.Show(True)
    app.MainLoop()

The only thing left to do now is design the said GUI.

The FilterLayout GUI will be based on a generic, plain layout class called BaseLayout, which we will be able to use in subsequent chapters as well.

The BaseLayout class is designed as an abstract base class. You can think of this class as a blueprint or recipe that will apply to all the layouts that we are yet to design—a skeleton class, if you will, that will serve as the backbone for all of our future GUI code. In order to use abstract classes, we need the following import statement:

from abc import ABCMeta, abstractmethod

We also include some other modules that will be helpful, especially the wx Python module and OpenCV (of course):

import time

import wx
import cv2

The class is designed to be derived from the blueprint or skeleton, that is, the wx.Frame class. We also mark the class as abstract by adding the __metaclass__ attribute:

class BaseLayout(wx.Frame):
    __metaclass__ = ABCMeta

Later on, when we write our own custom layout (FilterLayout), we will use the same notation to specify that the class is based on the BaseLayout blueprint (or skeleton) class, for example, in class FilterLayout(BaseLayout):. But for now, let's focus on the BaseLayout class.

An abstract class has at least one abstract method. An abstract method is akin to specifying that a certain method must exist, but we are not sure at that time what it should look like. For example, suppose BaseLayout contains a method specified as follows:

@abstractmethod
def _init_custom_layout(self):pass

Then any class deriving from it, such as FilterLayout, must specify a fully fleshed-out implementation of a method with that exact signature. This will allow us to create custom layouts, as you will see in a moment.

But first, let's proceed to the GUI constructor.

def __init__(self, parent, id, title, capture, fps=10):
    self.capture = capture
    # determine window size and init wx.Frame
    _, frame = self.capture.read()
    self.imgHeight,self.imgWidth = frame.shape[:2]

self.bmp = wx.BitmapFromBuffer(self.imgWidth, 
    self.imgHeight, frame)
wx.Frame.__init__(self, parent, id, title,size=(self.imgWidth, self.imgHeight+20))

self._init_base_layout()
self._create_base_layout()

def _on_next_frame(self, event):
    ret, frame = self.capture.read()
    if ret:
        frame = self._process_frame(cv2.cvtColor(frame,cv2.COLOR_BGR2RGB))

self.bmp.CopyFromBuffer(frame)

self.Refresh(eraseBackground=False)

def _on_paint(self, event):
    deviceContext = wx.BufferedPaintDC(self.pnl)
    deviceContext.DrawBitmap(self.bmp, 0, 0)

def _create_base_layout(self):
    self.pnl = wx.Panel(self, -1,
                        size=(self.imgWidth, self.imgHeight))
    self.pnl.SetBackgroundColour(wx.BLACK)

self.panels_vertical = wx.BoxSizer(wx.VERTICAL)
self.panels_vertical.Add(self.pnl, 1, flag=wx.EXPAND)

self._create_custom_layout()

self.SetMinSize((self.imgWidth, self.imgHeight))
self.SetSizer(self.panels_vertical)
self.Centre()

Now we are almost done! If we want to use the BaseLayout class, we need to provide code for the three methods that were left blank previously:

At this point, initializing the image filters is self-explanatory, as it only requires us to instantiate the corresponding classes:

def _init_custom_layout(self):
    self.pencil_sketch = PencilSketch((self.imgWidth, 
        self.imgHeight))
    self.warm_filter = WarmingFilter()
    self.cool_filter = CoolingFilter()
    self.cartoonizer = Cartoonizer()

To customize the layout, we arrange a number of radio buttons horizontally, one button per image effect mode:

def _create_custom_layout(self):
    # create a horizontal layout with all filter modes
    pnl = wx.Panel(self, -1 )
    self.mode_warm = wx.RadioButton(pnl, -1, 'Warming Filter',
        (10, 10), style=wx.RB_GROUP)
    self.mode_cool = wx.RadioButton(pnl, -1, 'Cooling Filter', 
        (10, 10))
    self.mode_sketch = wx.RadioButton(pnl, -1, 'Pencil Sketch',
        (10, 10))
    self.mode_cartoon = wx.RadioButton(pnl, -1, 'Cartoon',
        (10, 10))
    hbox = wx.BoxSizer(wx.HORIZONTAL)
    hbox.Add(self.mode_warm, 1)
    hbox.Add(self.mode_cool, 1)
    hbox.Add(self.mode_sketch, 1)
    hbox.Add(self.mode_cartoon, 1)
    pnl.SetSizer(hbox)

Here, the style=wx.RB_GROUP option makes sure that only one of these radio buttons can be selected at a time.

To make these changes take effect, pnl needs to be added to list of existing panels:

self.panels_vertical.Add(pnl, flag=wx.EXPAND | wx.BOTTOM | wx.TOP, border=1)

The last method to be specified is _process_frame. Recall that this method is triggered whenever a new camera frame is received. All that we need to do is pick the right image effect to be applied, which depends on the radio button configuration. We simply check which of the buttons is currently selected and call the corresponding render method:

def _process_frame(self, frame_rgb):
    if self.mode_warm.GetValue():
        frame = self.warm_filter.render(frame_rgb)
    elif self.mode_cool.GetValue():
        frame = self.cool_filter.render(frame_rgb)
    elif self.mode_sketch.GetValue():
        frame = self.pencil_sketch.render(frame_rgb)
    elif self.mode_cartoon.GetValue():
        frame = self.cartoonizer.render(frame_rgb)

Don't forget to return the processed frame:

return frame

And we're done!

Here is the result: