All examples will be written in Rust, and you have two alternatives for running the examples:

• Write and run the examples we’ll write on the Rust playground
• Install Rust on your machine and run the examples locally (recommended)

The ideal way to read this chapter is to clone the accompanying repository (https://github.com/PacktPublishing/Asynchronous-Programming-in-Rust/tree/main/ch01/a-assembly-dereference) and open the ch01 folder and keep it open while you read the book. There, you’ll find all the examples we write in this chapter and even some extra information that you might find interesting as well. You can of course also go back to the repository later if you don’t have that accessible right now.

In the beginning, computers had one CPU that executed a set of instructions written by a programmer one by one. No operating system (OS), no scheduling, no threads, no multitasking. This was how computers worked for a long time. We’re talking back when a program was assembled in a deck of punched cards, and you got in big trouble if you were so unfortunate that you dropped the deck onto the floor.

There were operating systems being researched very early and when personal computing started to grow in the 80s, operating systems such as DOS were the standard on most consumer PCs.

These operating systems usually yielded control of the entire CPU to the program currently executing, and it was up to the programmer to make things work and implement any kind of multitasking for their program. This worked fine, but as interactive UIs using a mouse and windowed operating systems became the norm, this model simply couldn’t work anymore...

Right off the bat, we’ll dive into this subject by defining what concurrency is. Since it is quite easy to confuse concurrent with parallel, we will try to make a clear distinction between the two from the get-go.

Important

Concurrency is about dealing with a lot of things at the same time.

Parallelism is about doing a lot of things at the same time.

We call the concept of progressing multiple tasks at the same time multitasking. There are two ways to multitask. One is by progressing tasks concurrently, but not at the same time. Another is to progress tasks at the exact same time in parallel. Figure 1.1 depicts the difference between the two scenarios:

Figure 1.1 – Multitasking two tasks

First, we need to agree on some definitions:

• Resource: This is something we need to be able to progress a task. Our resources are limited. This could be CPU time or memory.
• Task: This is a set of operations...

The operating system (OS) stands in the center of everything we do as programmers (well, unless you’re writing an operating system or working in the embedded realm), so there is no way for us to discuss any kind of fundamentals in programming without talking about operating systems in a bit of detail.

Concurrency from the operating system’s perspective

This ties into what I talked about earlier when I said that concurrency needs to be talked about within a reference frame, and I explained that the OS might stop and start your process at any time.

What we call synchronous code is, in most cases, code that appears synchronous to us as programmers. Neither the OS nor the CPU lives in a fully synchronous world.

Operating systems use preemptive multitasking and as long as the operating system you’re running is preemptively scheduling processes, you won’t have a guarantee that your code runs instruction by instruction...

Does the CPU cooperate with the operating system?

If you had asked me this question when I first thought I understood how programs work, I would most likely have answered no. We run programs on the CPU and we can do whatever we want if we know how to do it. Now, first of all, I wouldn’t have thought this through, but unless you learn how CPUs and operating systems work together, it’s not easy to know for sure.

What started to make me think I was very wrong was a segment of code that looked like what you’re about to see. If you think inline assembly in Rust looks foreign and confusing, don’t worry just yet. We’ll go through a proper introduction to inline assembly a little later in this book. I’ll make sure to go through each of the following lines until you get more comfortable with the syntax:

Repository reference: ch01/ac-assembly-dereference/src/main.rs

fn main() {
    let...

We’re nearing the end of the general CS subjects in this book, and we’ll start to dig our way out of the rabbit hole soon.

This part tries to tie things together and look at how the whole computer works as a system to handle I/O and concurrency.

Let’s get to it!

A simplified overview

Let’s look at some of the steps where we imagine that we read from a network card:

Remember that we’re simplifying a lot here. This is a rather complex operation but we’ll focus on the parts that are of most interest to us and skip a few steps along the way.

Step 1 – Our code

We register a socket. This happens by issuing a syscall to the OS. Depending on the OS, we either get a file descriptor (macOS/Linux) or a socket (Windows).

The next step is that we register our interest in Read events on that socket.

Step 2 – Registering events with the OS

This is handled in...

This chapter covered a lot of ground, so good job on doing all that legwork. We learned a little bit about how CPUs and operating systems have evolved from a historical perspective and the difference between non-preemptive and preemptive multitasking. We discussed the difference between concurrency and parallelism, talked about the role of the operating system, and learned that system calls are the primary way for us to interact with the host operating system. You’ve also seen how the CPU and the operating system cooperate through an infrastructure designed as part of the CPU.

Lastly, we went through a diagram on what happens when you issue a network call. You know there are at least three different ways for us to deal with the fact that the I/O call takes some time to execute, and we have to decide which way we want to handle that waiting time.

This covers most of the general background information we need so that we have the same definitions and overview before...