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Home > Web Development > Front End Web Development > LLVM Cookbook
LLVM Cookbook
LLVM Cookbook

LLVM Cookbook: Over 80 engaging recipes that will help you build a compiler frontend, optimizer, and code generator using LLVM

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LLVM Cookbook

Chapter 2. Steps in Writing a Frontend

In this chapter, we will cover the following recipes:

  • Defining a TOY language
  • Implementing a lexer
  • Defining Abstract Syntax Tree
  • Implementing a parser
  • Parsing simple expressions
  • Parsing binary expressions
  • Invoking a driver for parsing
  • Running lexer and parser on our TOY language
  • Defining IR code generation methods for each AST class
  • Generating IR code for expressions
  • Generating IR code for functions
  • Adding IR optimization support

Introduction

In this chapter, you will get to know about how to write a frontend for a language. By making use of a custom-defined TOY language, you will have recipes on how to write a lexer and a parser, and how to generate IR code from the Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) generated by the frontend.

Defining a TOY language

Before implementing a lexer and parser, the syntax and grammar of the language need to be determined first. In this chapter, a TOY language is used to demonstrate how a lexer and a parser can be implemented. The purpose of this recipe is to show how a language is skimmed through. For this purpose, the TOY language to be used is simple but meaningful.

A language typically has some variables, some function calls, some constants, and so on. To keep things simple, our TOY language in consideration has only numeric constants of 32-bit Integer type A, a variable that need not declare its type (like Python, in contrast to C/C++/Java, which require a type declaration) in the TOY language.

How to do it…

The grammar can be defined as follows (the production rules are defined below, with non-terminals on Left Hand Side (LHS) and a combination of terminals and non-terminals on Right Hand Side (RHS); when LHS is encountered, it yields appropriate RHS defined in the production...

Implementing a lexer

Lexer is a part of the first phase in compiling a program. Lexer tokenizes a stream of input in a program. Then parser consumes these tokens to construct an AST. The language to tokenize is generally a context-free language. A token is a string of one or more characters that are significant as a group. The process of forming tokens from an input stream of characters is called tokenization. Certain delimiters are used to identify groups of words as tokens. There are lexer tools to automate lexical analysis, such as LEX. In the TOY lexer demonstrated in the following procedure is a handwritten lexer using C++.

Getting ready

We must have a basic understanding of the TOY language defined in the recipe. Create a file named toy.cpp as follows:

$ vim toy.cpp

All the code that follows will contain all the lexer, parser, and code generation logic.

How to do it…

While implementing a lexer, types of tokens are defined to categorize streams of input strings (similar to states...

Defining Abstract Syntax Tree

AST is a tree representation of the abstract syntactic structure of the source code of a programming language. The ASTs of programming constructs, such as expressions, flow control statements, and so on, are grouped into operators and operands. ASTs represent relationships between programming constructs, and not the ways they are generated by grammar. ASTs ignore unimportant programming elements such as punctuations and delimiters. ASTs generally contain additional properties of every element in it, which are useful in further compilation phases. Location of source code is one such property, which can be used to throw an error line number if an error is encountered in determining the correctness of the source code in accordance with the grammar (location, line number, column number, and so on, and other related properties are stored in an object of the SourceManager class in Clang frontend for C++).

The AST is used intensively during semantic analysis, where...

Implementing a parser

Parser analyzes a code syntactically according to the rules of the language's grammar. The parsing phase determines if the input code can be used to form a string of tokens according to the defined grammar. A parse tree is constructed in this phase. Parser defines functions to organize language into a data structure called AST. The parser defined in this recipe uses a recursive decent parser technique which is a top-down parser, and uses mutually recursive functions to build the AST.

Getting ready

We must have the custom-defined language, that is the TOY language in this case, and also a stream of tokens generated by the lexer.

How to do it…

Define some basic value holders in our TOY parser as shown in the following:

  1. Open the toy.cpp file as follows:
    $ vi toy.cpp
  2. Define a global static variable to hold the current token from the lexer as follows:
    static int Current_token;
  3. Define a function to get the next token from the input stream from the lexer as follows:
    static...

Parsing simple expressions

In this recipe, you will learn how to parse a simple expression. A simple expression may consist of numeric values, identifiers, function calls, a function declaration, and function definitions. For each type of expression, individual parser logic needs to be defined.

Getting ready

We must have the custom-defined language—that is, the TOY language in this case—and also stream of tokens generated by lexer. We already defined ASTs above. Further, we are going to parse the expression and invoke AST constructors for every type of expression.

How to do it…

To parse simple expressions, proceed with the following code flow:

  1. Open the toy.cpp file as follows:
    $ vi toy.cpp

    We already have lexer logic present in the toy.cpp file. Whatever code follows needs to be appended after the lexer code in the toy.cpp file.

  2. Define the parser function for numeric expression as follows:
    static BaseAST *numeric_parser() {
  BaseAST *Result = new NumericAST(Numeric_Val);
 ...

Introduction

In this chapter, you will get to know about how to write a frontend for a language. By making use of a custom-defined TOY language, you will have recipes on how to write a lexer and a parser, and how to generate IR code from the Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) generated by the frontend.

Defining a TOY language

Before implementing a lexer and parser, the syntax and grammar of the language need to be determined first. In this chapter, a TOY language is used to demonstrate how a lexer and a parser can be implemented. The purpose of this recipe is to show how a language is skimmed through. For this purpose, the TOY language to be used is simple but meaningful.

A language typically has some variables, some function calls, some constants, and so on. To keep things simple, our TOY language in consideration has only numeric constants of 32-bit Integer type A, a variable that need not declare its type (like Python, in contrast to C/C++/Java, which require a type declaration) in the TOY language.

How to do it…

The grammar can be defined as follows (the production rules are defined below, with non-terminals on Left Hand Side (LHS) and a combination of terminals and non-terminals on Right Hand Side (RHS); when LHS is encountered, it yields appropriate RHS defined in the production rule...

Implementing a lexer

Lexer is a part of the first phase in compiling a program. Lexer tokenizes a stream of input in a program. Then parser consumes these tokens to construct an AST. The language to tokenize is generally a context-free language. A token is a string of one or more characters that are significant as a group. The process of forming tokens from an input stream of characters is called tokenization. Certain delimiters are used to identify groups of words as tokens. There are lexer tools to automate lexical analysis, such as LEX. In the TOY lexer demonstrated in the following procedure is a handwritten lexer using C++.

Getting ready

We must have a basic understanding of the TOY language defined in the recipe. Create a file named toy.cpp as follows:

$ vim toy.cpp

All the code that follows will contain all the lexer, parser, and code generation logic.

How to do it…

While implementing a lexer, types of tokens are defined to categorize streams of input strings (similar to states of an automata...

Defining Abstract Syntax Tree

AST is a tree representation of the abstract syntactic structure of the source code of a programming language. The ASTs of programming constructs, such as expressions, flow control statements, and so on, are grouped into operators and operands. ASTs represent relationships between programming constructs, and not the ways they are generated by grammar. ASTs ignore unimportant programming elements such as punctuations and delimiters. ASTs generally contain additional properties of every element in it, which are useful in further compilation phases. Location of source code is one such property, which can be used to throw an error line number if an error is encountered in determining the correctness of the source code in accordance with the grammar (location, line number, column number, and so on, and other related properties are stored in an object of the SourceManager class in Clang frontend for C++).

The AST is used intensively during semantic analysis, where...

Implementing a parser

Parser analyzes a code syntactically according to the rules of the language's grammar. The parsing phase determines if the input code can be used to form a string of tokens according to the defined grammar. A parse tree is constructed in this phase. Parser defines functions to organize language into a data structure called AST. The parser defined in this recipe uses a recursive decent parser technique which is a top-down parser, and uses mutually recursive functions to build the AST.

Getting ready

We must have the custom-defined language, that is the TOY language in this case, and also a stream of tokens generated by the lexer.

How to do it…

Define some basic value holders in our TOY parser as shown in the following:

  1. Open the toy.cpp file as follows:

    $ vi toy.cpp

  2. Define a global static variable to hold the current token from the lexer as follows:

    static int Current_token;

  3. Define a function to get the next token from the input stream from the lexer as follows:

    static void next_token...

Parsing simple expressions

In this recipe, you will learn how to parse a simple expression. A simple expression may consist of numeric values, identifiers, function calls, a function declaration, and function definitions. For each type of expression, individual parser logic needs to be defined.

Getting ready

We must have the custom-defined language—that is, the TOY language in this case—and also stream of tokens generated by lexer. We already defined ASTs above. Further, we are going to parse the expression and invoke AST constructors for every type of expression.

How to do it…

To parse simple expressions, proceed with the following code flow:

  1. Open the toy.cpp file as follows:

    $ vi toy.cpp

    We already have lexer logic present in the toy.cpp file. Whatever code follows needs to be appended after the lexer code in the toy.cpp file.

  2. Define the parser function for numeric expression as follows:

    static BaseAST *numeric_parser() {
  BaseAST *Result = new NumericAST(Numeric_Val);
  next_token();
  return...

Parsing binary expressions

In this recipe, you will learn how to parse a binary expression.

Getting ready

We must have the custom-defined language—that is, the toy language in this case—and also stream of tokens generated by lexer. The binary expression parser requires precedence of binary operators for determining LHS and RHS in order. An STL map can be used to define precedence of binary operators.

How to do it…

To parse a binary expression, proceed with the following code flow:

  1. Open the toy.cpp file as follows:

    $ vi toy.cpp

  2. Declare a map for operator precedence to store the precedence at global scope in the toy.cpp file as follows:

    static std::map<char, int>Operator_Precedence;

    The TOY language for demonstration has 4 operators where precedence of operators is defined as -< + < / < *.

  3. A function to initialize precedence—that is, to store precedence value in map—can be defined in global scope in the toy.cpp file as follows:

    static void init_precedence() {
  Operator_Precedence['-'...
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Description

The book is for compiler programmers who are familiar with concepts of compilers and want to indulge in understanding, exploring, and using LLVM infrastructure in a meaningful way in their work. This book is also for programmers who are not directly involved in compiler projects but are often involved in development phases where they write thousands of lines of code. With knowledge of how compilers work, they will be able to code in an optimal way and improve performance with clean code.

What you will learn

  • Introduction to LLVM modular design and LLVM tools Write a frontend for a language Add JIT support and use frontends for different languages Learn about the LLVM Pass infrastructure and the LLVM Pass Manager Create analyses and transform optimization passes Build a LLVM TOY backend from scratch Optimize the code at SelectionDAG level and allocate registers to variables

Product Details

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Publication date, Length, Edition, Language, ISBN-13
Publication date : May 30, 2015
Length: 296 pages
Edition : 1st
Language : English
ISBN-13 : 9781785285981
Vendor :
LLVM
Category :
Web Development
Concepts :
Front End Web Development
Tools :
Meld

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Product Details

Publication date : May 30, 2015
Length: 296 pages
Edition : 1st
Language : English
ISBN-13 : 9781785285981
Vendor :
LLVM
Category :
Web Development
Concepts :
Front End Web Development
Tools :
Meld

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Table of Contents

10 Chapters
1. LLVM Design and Use Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
1. LLVM Design and Use
Introduction
Understanding modular design
Cross-compiling Clang/LLVM
Converting a C source code to LLVM assembly
Converting IR to LLVM bitcode
Converting LLVM bitcode to target machine assembly
Converting LLVM bitcode back to LLVM assembly
Transforming LLVM IR
Linking LLVM bitcode
Executing LLVM bitcode
Using the C frontend Clang
Using the GO frontend
Using DragonEgg
2. Steps in Writing a Frontend Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
2. Steps in Writing a Frontend
Introduction
Defining a TOY language
Implementing a lexer
Defining Abstract Syntax Tree
Implementing a parser
Parsing simple expressions
Parsing binary expressions
Invoking a driver for parsing
Running lexer and parser on our TOY language
Defining IR code generation methods for each AST class
Generating IR code for expressions
Generating IR code for functions
Adding IR optimization support
3. Extending the Frontend and Adding JIT Support Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
3. Extending the Frontend and Adding JIT Support
Introduction
Handling decision making paradigms – if/then/else constructs
Generating code for loops
Handling user-defined operators – binary operators
Handling user-defined operators – unary operators
Adding JIT support
4. Preparing Optimizations Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
4. Preparing Optimizations
Introduction
Various levels of optimization
Writing your own LLVM pass
Running your own pass with the opt tool
Using another pass in a new pass
Registering a pass with pass manager
Writing an analysis pass
Writing an alias analysis pass
Using other analysis passes
5. Implementing Optimizations Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
5. Implementing Optimizations
Introduction
Writing a dead code elimination pass
Writing an inlining transformation pass
Writing a pass for memory optimization
Combining LLVM IR
Transforming and optimizing loops
Reassociating expressions
Vectorizing IR
Other optimization passes
6. Target-independent Code Generator Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
6. Target-independent Code Generator
Introduction
The life of an LLVM IR instruction
Visualizing LLVM IR CFG using GraphViz
Describing targets using TableGen
Defining an instruction set
Adding a machine code descriptor
Implementing the MachineInstrBuilder class
Implementing the MachineBasicBlock class
Implementing the MachineFunction class
Writing an instruction selector
Legalizing SelectionDAG
Optimizing SelectionDAG
Selecting instruction from the DAG
Scheduling instructions in SelectionDAG
7. Optimizing the Machine Code Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
7. Optimizing the Machine Code
Introduction
Eliminating common subexpression from machine code
Analyzing live intervals
Allocating registers
Inserting the prologue-epilogue code
Code emission
Tail call optimization
Sibling call optimisation
8. Writing an LLVM Backend Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
8. Writing an LLVM Backend
Introduction
Defining registers and registers sets
Defining the calling convention
Defining the instruction set
Implementing frame lowering
Printing an instruction
Selecting an instruction
Adding instruction encoding
Supporting a subtarget
Lowering to multiple instructions
Registering a target
9. Using LLVM for Various Useful Projects Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
9. Using LLVM for Various Useful Projects
Introduction
Exception handling in LLVM
Using sanitizers
Writing the garbage collector with LLVM
Converting LLVM IR to JavaScript
Using the Clang Static Analyzer
Using bugpoint
Using LLDB
Using LLVM utility passes
Index Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Index

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A. Mcb Hill Sep 17, 2015
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Thorough and about an excellent topic. Unfortunately, I have not finished it yet.
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David Baker Oct 14, 2019
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Help me get a practical handle on the LLVM internal representation from the first chapter. Showed how each pass is transformational on the IR. Made the concepts easy to grasp with actual hands on executions.
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f1sdz Sep 03, 2016
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Ce livre est un simple copier-coller d'exemples publiquement disponibles sur le site de LLVM. Je ne conseille pas du tout l'achat de ce livre.
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Ryan Patrick Nicholl Dec 08, 2015
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Basically a repeat of information you can easily find on the online LLVM docs for free.
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je_2014 May 12, 2016
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The worst tech/programming book I've ever read. It is a disorganized attempt to copy and paste text from llvm.org. I've also bought "LLVM Essentials" by the same two authors, I've not had a chance to look at this book thoroughly but it looks like another similar compilation of llvm.org text snippets. I've focused mainly on the backend chapters and tried to create the example "toy" backend. It is thoroughly incomplete and all of the "recipes" that I've tried do not even compile.Additionally, I've downloaded the example code from the publishers website and nothing compiled using LLVM 3.8. They don't even mention how to integrate/register the target with Clang or do a complete job with LLVM. I contacted the publisher about this and their response was that the code was developed for an older version of LLVM. Fair enough, but I've found several syntactical errors in the downloaded code recipes that even show in the published book.This means that the authors didn't even bother to build/compile their own examples! Absolutely ridiculous!
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Responsive Web Design with HTML5 and CSS
Responsive Web Design with HTML5 and CSS
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React and React Native
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Building Python Microservices with FastAPI
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About the authors

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Profile icon Mayur Pandey
Mayur Pandey
Mayur Pandey is a professional software engineer and open source enthusiast focused on compiler development and tools. He is an active contributor to the LLVM open source community. He has been a part of the compiler team for the Tizen project and has hands-on experience of other proprietary compilers. He has earned a bachelor's degree in Information Technology from Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology, Allahabad, India. Currently, he lives in Bengaluru, India.
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Profile icon Suyog Sarda
Suyog Sarda
Suyog Sarda is a professional software engineer and an open source enthusiast. He focuses on compiler development and compiler tools. He is an active contributor to the LLVM open source community. Suyog was also involved in code performance improvements for the ARM and X86 architectures. He has been a part of the compiler team for the Tizen project. His interest in compiler development lies more in code optimization and vectorization. Previously, he has authored a book on LLVM, titled LLVM Cookbook by Packt Publishing. Apart from compilers, Suyog is also interested in Linux Kernel Development. He has published a technical paper titled Secure Co-resident Virtualization in Multicore Systems by VM Pinning and Page Coloring at the IEEE Proceedings of the 2012 International Conference on Cloud Computing, Technologies, Applications, and Management at the Birla Institute of Technology, Dubai. He has earned a bachelor's degree in computer technology from the College of Engineering, Pune, India.
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