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Home > Programming > Programming Language > Rust Essentials
Rust Essentials
Rust Essentials

Rust Essentials: A quick guide to writing fast, safe, and concurrent systems and applications , Second Edition

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Rust Essentials

Using Variables and Types

In this chapter, we look at the basic building blocks of a Rust program, like variables and types. We discuss variables of primitive types, whether their type has to be declared or not, and the scope of variables. Immutability, one of the cornerstones of Rust's safety strategy, is also discussed and illustrated.

We will cover the following topics:

  • Comments
  • Global constants
  • Values and primitive types
  • Binding variables to values
  • Scope of a variable and shadowing
  • Type checking and conversions
  • Expressions
  • The stack and the heap

Our code examples will center on building a text-based game called Monster Attack.

Comments

Ideally, a program should be self-documenting by using descriptive variable names and easy-to-read code, but there are always cases where additional comments about a program's structure or algorithms are needed. Rust follows the C convention and has:

  • // line comments; everything on the line after // is commentary and not compiled
  • /* */block or multi-line comments; everything between the start /*and the end */ is not compiled

However, the preferred Rust style is to use only the // comment, also for multiple lines, as shown in the following code:

// see Chapter 2/code/comments.rs 
fn main() { 
  // Here starts the execution of the Game. 
  // We begin with printing a welcome message: 
  println!("Welcome to the Game!"); 
}

Use the /* */ comments only to comment out code.

Rust also has a doc comment with ///, useful in larger projects that require an official...

Global constants

Often, an application needs a few values that are in fact constants, meaning that they do not change in the course of the program. In our game, for example, the game name Monster Attack could be a constant, as could the maximum health amount, which is the number 100. We must be able to use them in the main() function or any other function in our program, so they are placed at the top of the code file. They live in the global scope of the program. Such constants are declared with the keyword static, as follows:

// see Chapter 2/code/constants1.rs 
static MAX_HEALTH: i32 = 100; 
static GAME_NAME: &str = "Monster Attack"; 
 
fn main() { 
}

Names of constants must be in uppercase, underscores can be used to separate word parts. Their type must also be indicated; the variable MAX_HEALTH is a 32-bit integer (i32) and the variable GAME_NAME is a string...

Values and primitive types

Constants that have been initialized have a value. Values exist in different types: 70 is an integer, 3.14 is a float, and Z and θ are the type of a character. Characters are Unicode values that take four bytes of memory each. Godzilla is a string of type &str (which is Unicode UTF8 by default), true and false are the type of Boolean values. Integers can be written in different formats:

  • Hexadecimal format with 0x, like 0x46 for 70.
  • Octal format with 0o, like 0o106 for 70.
  • Binary format with 0b, like 0b1000110.
  • Underscores can be used for readability, as in 1_000_000. Sometimes the compiler will urge you to indicate more explicitly the type of number with a suffix, for example (the number after u or i is the number of memory bits used, namely: 8, 16, 32, or 64).
  • The 10usize denotes an unsigned integer of machine word size (usize), which can...

Binding variables to values

Storing all values in constants is not an option. It is not good because constants live as long as the program and moreover can't change, and often we want to change values. In Rust, we can bind a value to a variable by using a let binding.

// see Chapter 2/code/bindings.rs 
fn main() { 
  let energy = 5; // value 5 is bound to variable energy 
}

Unlike in many other languages, such as Python or Go, the semicolon,;, is needed here to end the statement. Otherwise, the compiler throws an error, as follows:

error: expected one of `.`, `;`, or an operator, found `}`

We also want to create bindings only when they are used in the rest of the program, but don't worry, the Rust compiler warns us about that. The warning looks like the following:

    
values.rs:2:6: 2:7 warning: unused variable: `energy`, #[warn(unused_variables)] on by default
  ...

Scope of a variable and shadowing

All variables defined in the program bindings.rs have local scope delimited by the { } of the function which happens to be the main() function here, but this applies to any function. After the ending, }, they go out of scope and their memory allocation is freed.

We can even make a more limited scope inside a function by defining a code block as all code contained within a pair of curly braces { }, as in the following snippet:

// see Chapter 2/code/scope.rs 
fn main() { 
  let outer = 42; 
   { // start of code block 
        let inner = 3.14; 
        println!("block variable: {}", inner); 
        let outer = 99; // shadows the first outer variable 
        println!("block variable outer: {}", outer); 
    } // end of code block 
    println!("outer variable: {}", outer); 
}

The preceding code gives the following...

Comments

Ideally, a program should be self-documenting by using descriptive variable names and easy-to-read code, but there are always cases where additional comments about a program's structure or algorithms are needed. Rust follows the C convention and has:

  • // line comments; everything on the line after // is commentary and not compiled
  • /* */block or multi-line comments; everything between the start /*and the end */ is not compiled

However, the preferred Rust style is to use only the // comment, also for multiple lines, as shown in the following code:

// see Chapter 2/code/comments.rs 
fn main() { 
  // Here starts the execution of the Game. 
  // We begin with printing a welcome message: 
  println!("Welcome to the Game!"); 
}

Use the /* */ comments only to comment out code.

Rust also has a doc comment with ///, useful in larger projects that require an official documentation for customers and developers. Such comments have to appear before an item (like a function) on a separate line to document...

Global constants

Often, an application needs a few values that are in fact constants, meaning that they do not change in the course of the program. In our game, for example, the game name Monster Attack could be a constant, as could the maximum health amount, which is the number 100. We must be able to use them in the main() function or any other function in our program, so they are placed at the top of the code file. They live in the global scope of the program. Such constants are declared with the keyword static, as follows:

// see Chapter 2/code/constants1.rs 
static MAX_HEALTH: i32 = 100; 
static GAME_NAME: &str = "Monster Attack"; 
 
fn main() { 
}

Names of constants must be in uppercase, underscores can be used to separate word parts. Their type must also be indicated; the variable MAX_HEALTH is a 32-bit integer (i32) and the variable GAME_NAME is a string (str) type. As we will discuss further, the declaration of types for variables is done in exactly the same way, although it...

Values and primitive types

Constants that have been initialized have a value. Values exist in different types: 70 is an integer, 3.14 is a float, and Z and θ are the type of a character. Characters are Unicode values that take four bytes of memory each. Godzilla is a string of type &str (which is Unicode UTF8 by default), true and false are the type of Boolean values. Integers can be written in different formats:

  • Hexadecimal format with 0x, like 0x46 for 70.
  • Octal format with 0o, like 0o106 for 70.
  • Binary format with 0b, like 0b1000110.
  • Underscores can be used for readability, as in 1_000_000. Sometimes the compiler will urge you to indicate more explicitly the type of number with a suffix, for example (the number after u or i is the number of memory bits used, namely: 8, 16, 32, or 64).
  • The 10usize denotes an unsigned integer of machine word size (usize), which can be any of the following types: u8, u16, u32, u64.
  • The 10isize denotes a signed integer of machine word size (isize), which can...

Binding variables to values

Storing all values in constants is not an option. It is not good because constants live as long as the program and moreover can't change, and often we want to change values. In Rust, we can bind a value to a variable by using a let binding.

// see Chapter 2/code/bindings.rs 
fn main() { 
  let energy = 5; // value 5 is bound to variable energy 
}

Unlike in many other languages, such as Python or Go, the semicolon,;, is needed here to end the statement. Otherwise, the compiler throws an error, as follows:

error: expected one of `.`, `;`, or an operator, found `}`

We also want to create bindings only when they are used in the rest of the program, but don't worry, the Rust compiler warns us about that. The warning looks like the following:

    
values.rs:2:6: 2:7 warning: unused variable: `energy`, #[warn(unused_variables)] on by default

For prototyping purposes, you can suppress that warning by prefixing the variable name with an _, like in let _ energy = 5;...

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Page 1 of 10

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Key benefits

  • Get started with Rust to build scalable and high performance applications
  • Enhance your application development skills using the power of Rust
  • Discover the power of Rust when developing concurrent applications for large and scalable software

Description

Rust is the new, open source, fast, and safe systems programming language for the 21st century, developed at Mozilla Research, and with a steadily growing community. It was created to solve the dilemma between high-level, slow code with minimal control over the system, and low-level, fast code with maximum system control. It is no longer necessary to learn C/C++ to develop resource intensive and low-level systems applications. This book will give you a head start to solve systems programming and application tasks with Rust. We start off with an argumentation of Rust's unique place in today's landscape of programming languages. You'll install Rust and learn how to work with its package manager Cargo. The various concepts are introduced step by step: variables, types, functions, and control structures to lay the groundwork. Then we explore more structured data such as strings, arrays, and enums, and you’ll see how pattern matching works. Throughout all this, we stress the unique ways of reasoning that the Rust compiler uses to produce safe code. Next we look at Rust's specific way of error handling, and the overall importance of traits in Rust code. The pillar of memory safety is treated in depth as we explore the various pointer kinds. Next, you’ll see how macros can simplify code generation, and how to compose bigger projects with modules and crates. Finally, you’ll discover how we can write safe concurrent code in Rust and interface with C programs, get a view of the Rust ecosystem, and explore the use of the standard library.

Who is this book for?

The book is for developers looking for a quick entry into using Rust and understanding the core features of the language. Basic programming knowledge is assumed.

What you will learn

  • Set up your Rust environment to achieve the highest productivity
  • Bridge the performance gap between safe and unsafe languages
  • Use pattern matching to create flexible code
  • Apply generics and traits to develop widely applicable code
  • Organize your code in modules and crates
  • Build macros to extend Rust's capabilities and reach
  • Apply tasks to tackle problems concurrently in a distributed environment

Product Details

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Publication date, Length, Edition, Language, ISBN-13
Publication date : Nov 08, 2017
Length: 264 pages
Edition : 2nd
Language : English
ISBN-13 : 9781788390019
Category :
Programming
Languages :
Rust
Concepts :
Programming Language

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Product Details

Publication date : Nov 08, 2017
Length: 264 pages
Edition : 2nd
Language : English
ISBN-13 : 9781788390019
Category :
Programming
Languages :
Rust
Concepts :
Programming Language

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Rust Programming By Example
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Table of Contents

12 Chapters
Starting with Rust Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Starting with Rust
The advantages of Rust
The stability of Rust and its evolution
The success of Rust
Servo
Installing Rust
rustc--the Rust compiler
Our first program
Developer tools
The Standard Library
Summary
Using Variables and Types Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Using Variables and Types
Comments
Global constants
Values and primitive types
Binding variables to values
Scope of a variable and shadowing
Type checking and conversions
Expressions
The stack and the heap
Summary
Using Functions and Control Structures Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Using Functions and Control Structures
Branching on a condition
Looping
Functions
Attributes
Testing
Summary
Structuring Data and Matching Patterns Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Structuring Data and Matching Patterns
Strings
Arrays, vectors, and slices
Tuples
Structs
Enums
Getting input from the console
Matching patterns
Program arguments
Summary
Higher Order Functions and Error-Handling Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Higher Order Functions and Error-Handling
Higher order functions and closures
Iterators
Consumers and adapters
Generic data structures and functions
Error-handling
Summary
Using Traits and OOP in Rust Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Using Traits and OOP in Rust
Associated functions on structs
Methods on structs
Using a constructor pattern
Using a builder pattern
Methods on tuples and enums
Traits
Using trait constraints
Static and dynamic dispatch
Built-in traits and operator overloading
OOP in Rust
Inheritance with traits
Using the visitor pattern
Summary
Ensuring Memory Safety and Pointers Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Ensuring Memory Safety and Pointers
Pointers and references
Ownership and borrowing
Boxes
Reference counting
Overview of pointers
Summary
Organizing Code and Macros Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Organizing Code and Macros
Modules and crates
Macros
Summary
Concurrency - Coding for Multicore Execution Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Concurrency - Coding for Multicore Execution
Concurrency and threads
Shared mutable states
Communication through channels
Summary
Programming at the Boundaries Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Programming at the Boundaries
When is code unsafe
Raw pointers
Interfacing with C
Inlining assembly code
Calling Rust from other languages
Summary
Exploring the Standard Library Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Exploring the Standard Library
Exploring std and the prelude module
Collections - using hashmaps and hashsets
Working with files
Using Rust without the Standard Library
Summary
The Ecosystem of Crates Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
The Ecosystem of Crates
The ecosystem of crates
Working with dates and times
File formats and databases
Web development
Graphics and games
OS and embedded system development
Other resources for learning Rust
Summary

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About the author

Profile icon Ivo Balbaert
Ivo Balbaert
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Ivo Balbaert is a lecturer in web programming and databases at CVO Antwerpen, a community college in Belgium. He received a PhD in applied physics from the University of Antwerp in 1986. He worked for 20 years in the software industry as a developer and consultant in several companies, and for 10 years as project manager at the University Hospital of Antwerp. From 2000 onwards, he switched to partly teaching and partly developing software (at KHM Mechelen, CVO Antwerpen). He also wrote an introductory book in Dutch about developing in Ruby and Rails, Programmeren met Ruby en Rails, published by Van Duuren Media. In 2012, he authored a book on the Go programming language, The Way to Go, published by iUniverse. He has written a number of introductory books for new programming languages, notably Dart, Julia, Rust, and Red, all published by Packt.
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The publication date is as accurate as we can be at any point in the project. Unfortunately, delays can happen. Often those delays are out of our control, such as changes to the technology code base or delays in the tech release. We do our best to give you an accurate estimate of the publication date at any given time, and as more chapters are delivered, the more accurate the delivery date will become.

How will I know when new chapters are ready? Chevron down icon Chevron up icon

We'll let you know every time there has been an update to a course that you've bought in Early Access. You'll get an email to let you know there has been a new chapter, or a change to a previous chapter. The new chapters are automatically added to your account, so you can also check back there any time you're ready and download or read them online.

I am a Packt subscriber, do I get Early Access? Chevron down icon Chevron up icon

Yes, all Early Access content is fully available through your subscription. You will need to have a paid for or active trial subscription in order to access all titles.

How is Early Access delivered? Chevron down icon Chevron up icon

Early Access is currently only available as a PDF or through our online reader. As we make changes or add new chapters, the files in your Packt account will be updated so you can download them again or view them online immediately.

How do I buy Early Access content? Chevron down icon Chevron up icon

Early Access is a way of us getting our content to you quicker, but the method of buying the Early Access course is still the same. Just find the course you want to buy, go through the check-out steps, and you’ll get a confirmation email from us with information and a link to the relevant Early Access courses.

What is Early Access? Chevron down icon Chevron up icon

Keeping up to date with the latest technology is difficult; new versions, new frameworks, new techniques. This feature gives you a head-start to our content, as it's being created. With Early Access you'll receive each chapter as it's written, and get regular updates throughout the product's development, as well as the final course as soon as it's ready.We created Early Access as a means of giving you the information you need, as soon as it's available. As we go through the process of developing a course, 99% of it can be ready but we can't publish until that last 1% falls in to place. Early Access helps to unlock the potential of our content early, to help you start your learning when you need it most. You not only get access to every chapter as it's delivered, edited, and updated, but you'll also get the finalized, DRM-free product to download in any format you want when it's published. As a member of Packt, you'll also be eligible for our exclusive offers, including a free course every day, and discounts on new and popular titles.