"Finding a risk is learning, Ability to identify risk exposure is a skill and exploiting it is merely a choice"

In this article by Vijay Kumar Velu, the author of the book Mastering Kali Linux for Advanced Penetration Testing - Second Edition, we will learn about vulnerability assessment.

The goal of passive and active reconnaissance is to identify the exploitable target and vulnerability assessment is to find the security flaws that are most likely to support the tester's or attacker's objective (denial of service, theft, or modification of data). The vulnerability assessment during the exploit phase of the kill chain focuses on creating the access to achieve the objective—mapping of the vulnerabilities to line up the exploits to maintain the persistent access to the target.

Thousands of exploitable vulnerabilities have been identified, and most are associated with at least one proof-of-concept code or technique to allow the system to be compromised. Nevertheless, the underlying principles that govern success are the same across networks, operating systems, and applications.

In this article, you will learn:

• Using online and local vulnerability resources
• Vulnerability scanning with nmap

Vulnerability nomenclature

Vulnerability scanning employs automated processes and applications to identify vulnerabilities in a network, system, operating system, or application that may be exploitable.

When performed correctly, a vulnerability scan delivers an inventory of devices (both authorized and rogue devices); known vulnerabilities that have been actively scanned for, and usually a confirmation of how compliant the devices are with various policies and regulations.

Unfortunately, vulnerability scans are loud—they deliver multiple packets that are easily detected by most network controls and make stealth almost impossible to achieve. They also suffer from the following additional limitations:

• For the most part, vulnerability scanners are signature based—they can only detect known vulnerabilities, and only if there is an existing recognition signature that the scanner can apply to the target. To a penetration tester, the most effective scanners are open source and they allow the tester to rapidly modify code to detect new vulnerabilities.
• Scanners produce large volumes of output, frequently containing false-positive results that can lead a tester astray; in particular, networks with different operating systems can produce false-positives with a rate as high as 70 percent.
• Scanners may have a negative impact on the network—they can create network latency or cause the failure of some devices (refer to the Network Scanning Watch List at www.digininja.org, for devices known to fail as a result of vulnerability testing).
• In certain jurisdictions, scanning is considered as hacking, and may constitute an illegal act.

There are multiple commercial and open source products that perform vulnerability scans.

Local and online vulnerability databases

Together, passive and active reconnaissance identifies the attack surface of the target, that is, the total number of points that can be assessed for vulnerabilities. A server with just an operating system installed can only be exploited if there are vulnerabilities in that particular operating system; however, the number of potential vulnerabilities increases with each application that is installed.

Penetration testers and attackers must find the particular exploits that will compromise known and suspected vulnerabilities. The first place to start the search is at vendor sites; most hardware and application vendors release information about vulnerabilities when they release patches and upgrades. If an exploit for a particular weakness is known, most vendors will highlight this to their customers. Although their intent is to allow customers to test for the presence of the vulnerability themselves, attackers and penetration testers will take advantage of this information as well.

Other online sites that collect, analyze, and share information about vulnerabilities are as follows:

• The National vulnerability database that consolidates all public vulnerability data released by the US Government available at http://web.nvd.nist.gov/view/vuln/search
• Secunia available at http://secunia.com/community/
• Open Source Vulnerability Database Project (OSVDP) available at http://www.osvdb.org/search/advsearch
• Packetstorm security available at http://packetstormsecurity.com/
• SecurityFocus available at http://www.securityfocus.com/vulnerabilities
• Inj3ct0r available at http://1337day.com/
• The Exploit database maintained by Offensive Security available at http://www.db-exploit.com

The Exploit database is also copied locally to Kali and it can be found in the /usr/share/exploitdb directory. Before using it, make sure that it has been updated using the following command:

cd /usr/share/exploitdb
wget http://www.exploit-db.com/archive.tar.bz2
tar -xvjfarchive.tar.bz2
rmarchive.tar.bz2

To search the local copy of exploitdb, open a Terminal window and enter searchsploit and the desired search term(s) in the Command Prompt. This will invoke a script that searches a database file (.csv) that contains a list of all exploits. The search will return a description of known vulnerabilities as well as the path to a relevant exploit. The exploit can be extracted, compiled, and run against specific vulnerabilities. Take a look at the following screenshot, which shows the description of the vulnerabilities:

The search script scans for each line in the CSV file from left to right, so the order of the search terms is important—a search for Oracle 10g will return several exploits, but 10g Oracle will not return any. Also, the script is weirdly case sensitive; although you are instructed to use lower case characters in the search term, a search for bulletproof FTP returns no hits, but bulletproof FTP returns seven hits, and bulletproof FTP returns no hits. More effective searches of the CSV file can be conducted using the grep command or a search tool such as KWrite (apt-get install kwrite).

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A search of the local database may identify several possible exploits with a description and a path listing; however, these will have to be customized to your environment, and then compiled prior to use. Copy the exploit to the /tmp directory (the given path does not take into account that the /windows/remote directory resides in the /platforms directory).

Exploits presented as scripts such as Perl, Ruby, and PHP are relatively easy to implement. For example, if the target is a Microsoft II 6.0 server that may be vulnerable to a WebDAV remote authentication bypass, copy the exploit to the root directory and then execute as a standard Perl script, as shown in the following screenshot:



Many of the exploits are available as source code that must be compiled before use. For example, a search for RPC-specific vulnerabilities identifies several possible exploits. An excerpt is shown in the following screenshot:



The RPC DCOM vulnerability identified as 76.c is known from practice to be relatively stable. So we will use it as an example. To compile this exploit, copy it from the storage directory to the /tmp directory. In that location, compile it using GCC with the command as follows:

root@kali:~# gcc76.c -o 76.exe

This will use the GNU Compiler Collection application to compile 76.c to a file with the output (-o) name of 76.exe, as shown in the following screenshot:



When you invoke the application against the target, you must call the executable (which is not stored in the /tmp directory) using a symbolic link as follows:

root@kali:~# ./76.exe

The source code for this exploit is well documented and the required parameters are clear at the execution, as shown in the following screenshot:



Unfortunately, not all exploits from exploit database and other public sources compiled as readily as 76.c. There are several issues that make the use of such exploits problematic, even dangerous, for penetration testers listed as follows:

• Deliberate errors or incomplete source code are commonly encountered as experienced developers attempt to keep exploits away from inexperienced users, especially beginners who are trying to compromise systems without knowing the risks that go with their actions.
• Exploits are not always sufficiently documented; after all, there is no standard that governs the creation and use of code intended to be used to compromise a data system. As a result, they can be difficult to use, particularly for testers who lack expertise in application development.
• Inconsistent behaviors due to changing environments (new patches applied to the target system and language variations in the target application) may require significant alterations to the source code; again, this may require a skilled developer.
• There is always the risk of freely available code containing malicious functionalities. A penetration tester may think that they are conducting a proof of concept (POC) exercise and will be unaware that the exploit has also created a backdoor in the application being tested that could be used by the developer.

To ensure consistent results and create a community of coders who follow consistent practices, several exploit frameworks have been developed. The most popular exploitation framework is the Metasploit framework.

Vulnerability scanning with nmap

There are no security operating distributions without nmap, so far we have discussed how to utilize nmap during active reconnaissance, but attackers don't just use nmap to find open ports and services, but also engage the nmap to perform the vulnerability assessment. As of 10 March 2017, the latest version of nmap is 7.40 and it ships with 500+ NSE (nmap scripting engine) scripts, as shown in the following screenshot:



Penetration testers utilize nmap's most powerful and flexible features, which allows them to write their own scripts and also automate them to ease the exploitation. Primarily the NSE was developed for the following reasons:

• Network discovery: Primary purpose that attackers would utilize the nmap is for the network discovery.
• Classier version detection of a service: There are 1000's of services with multiple version details to the same service, so make it more sophisticated.
• Vulnerability detection: To automatically identify vulnerability in a vast network range; however, nmap itself cannot be a fully vulnerability scanner in itself.
• Backdoor detection: Some of the scripts are written to identify the pattern if there are any worms infections on the network, it makes the attackers job easy to narrow down and focus on taking over the machine remotely.
• Vulnerability exploitation: Attackers can also potentially utilize nmap to perform exploitation in combination with other tools such as Metasploit or write a custom reverse shell code and combine nmap's capability of exploitation.

Before firing the nmap to perform the vulnerability scan, penetration testers must update the nmap script db to see if there are any new scripts added to the database so that they don't miss the vulnerability identification:

nmap –script-updatedb

Running for all the scripts against the target host:

nmap-T4 -A -sV -v3 -d –oATargetoutput --script all --script-argsvulns.showalltarget.com

Introduction to LUA scripting

Light weight embeddable scripting language, which is built on top of the C programming language, was created in Brazil in 1993 and is still actively developed. It is a powerful and fast programming language mostly used in gaming applications and image processing. Complete source code, manual, plus binaries for some platforms do not go beyond 1.44 MB (which is less than a floppy disk). Some of the security tools that are developed in LUA are nmap, Wireshark, and Snort 3.0.

One of the reasons why LUA is chosen to be the scripting language in Information security is due to the compactness, no buffer overflows and format string vulnerabilities, and it can be interpreted.

LUA can be installed directly to Kali Linux by issuing the apt-get install lua5.1 command on the Terminal. The following code extract is the sample script to read the file and print the first line:

#!/usr/bin/lua
local file = io.open("/etc/passwd", "r")
contents = file:read()
file:close()
print (contents)

LUA is similar to any other scripting such as bash and PERL scripting. The preceding script should produce the output as shown in the following screenshot:

Customizing NSE scripts

In order to achieve maximum effectiveness, customization of scripts helps penetration testers in finding the right vulnerabilities within the given span of time. However, attackers do not have the time limit. The following code extract is a LUANSE script to identify a specific file location that we will search on the entire subnet using nmap:

local http=require 'http'
description = [[ This is my custom discovery on the network ]]
categories = {"safe","discovery"}
require("http")
functionportrule(host, port)
returnport.number == 80
end
function action(host, port)
local response
response = http.get(host, port, "/test.txt")
ifresponse.status and response.status ~= 404
then
return "successful"
end
end	

Save the file into the /usr/share/nmap/scripts/ folder. Finally, your script is ready to be tested as shown in the following screenshot; you must be able to run your own NSE script without any problems:



To completely understand the preceding NSE script here is the description of what is in the code:

local http: requires HTTP – calling the right library from the LUA, the line calls the HTTP script and made it a local request.

Description: Where testers/researchers can enter the description of the script.

Categories: This typically has two variables, where one declares whether it is safe or intrusive.