Humans have always built tools and made innovations to make life more comfortable and to allow us to do more things faster and more efficiently. We need to go back in time a few hundred years in order to see the first attempts at building a tool that could resemble a computer. However, before we do that, we might want to define what a computer is. Wikipedia offers the following definition:

A computer is a machine that can be instructed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations automatically via computer programming.

So, a computer is a programmable machine that performs arithmetic or logical operations. Let's review a few inventions from the past using this definition to ascertain which of them could be considered a computer.

To begin, we can rule out the Jacquard machine, which was the automated loom invented in the early years of the 19th century. These looms could be programmed using punch cards, but they produced woven...

A programmable computer needs to be, well, programmed. So, of course, the history of programming goes hand in hand with the evolution of computers.

In 1833, Charles Babbage met Ada Lovelace, daughter of poet Lord Byron. She became very impressed and interested in Babbage's plans for his programmable machines, and their collaboration began. Among other things, she wrote some notes outlining her ideas for how the Babbage Analytical Engine could be programmed. We can call her the inventor of programming, even if we had to wait over 100 years until we had the machine that could make her ideas come true. Her status today is summarized in a History Extra article, from 2017, by James Essinger:

Today, Ada is quite rightly seen as an icon of feminist scientific achievement, a heroine of the mind, and one of the earliest visionaries in the early history of the computer.

In her notes, Lovelace did a couple of remarkable things. The first was that...

A computer is dumb in the sense that, without programs, it can't do anything. A computer program is a set of instructions that the computer can execute, and it is our job, as programmers, to write these programs using one or more programming languages.

Most applications that we run, such as a web browser, word processor, or mail client, can't communicate with the computer hardware directly. They require a layer in between that takes care of this. This layer is called the operating system. Windows and Linux are two examples of well-known operating systems. The main purpose of an operating system is to take care of the direct communication between the applications that we use and the hardware, such as the processor, memory, hard drives, keyboards, and printers. To be able to perform this communication, the operating system requires special programs that are designed to communicate with a particular device. These programs are called device drivers. A somewhat...

Why is it that computers only work with zeros and ones? Why can't they work directly with text or images, for example? The answer is that it is rather easy to build circuits that can represent two states. If you have an electrical wire, you can either run electricity through it or not. The flow or no flow of electricity could represent several things, such as on or off, true or false, or zero or one. Let's think of these two states as zero and one for now, with zero representing no electricity flowing and one symbolizing that we do have flow. If we can serve these two states, we could add more wires and, by doing that, have more zeros and ones.

But what could we possibly do with all of these zeros and ones? Well, the answer is that we can do almost anything. For example, with only zeros and ones, we can represent any integer by using the binary numeral system. Let's demonstrate how that works.

To understand binary numbers, we must...

In this chapter, we have gone back in history and explored the development of computers. The history of computers is a vast topic, but we touched on some important events that have made computers the fantastic machines that we know today.

For a computer to be useful, it requires programs, and to be able to write programs, we need programming languages. We learned that the development of programming was closely related to the development of computers, even if Lady Ada Lovelace managed to write what was considered to be the first computer program about 100 years before the first computer was built.

With the history of computers covered, we then turned our attention to what a computer program is and how the computer can use the instructions given in the program to accomplish the intentions of the programmer. To do that, we examined the smallest parts of data a computer can handle, the bits, which are the zeros and ones of the binary representation of numbers. We learned...