To complete the exercise in this chapter, you will need a PC with Windows 11 Pro, at least 8 GB of Random Access Memory (RAM), 500 MB of HDD, and access to the internet.

When you start reading this section, you will naturally wonder why you should learn about computer networking if you are interested in learning about Windows Server. Initially, your statement would stand. However, the more you delve into Windows Server, the more you will justify the necessity of learning about computer networks. As such, this section has been designed to instill fundamental networking skills in you, which are very much needed for installing and supporting Windows Server 2022. So, let’s go back to computer networks.

It all began many years ago when sharing resources became necessary. As time went by and demand increased, the development and advancement of computer network technologies also occurred. Therefore, the need to connect and interconnect computers within computer networks and among more geographic locations created a demand for well-defined terms and concepts to describe computer networks. Because of that, concepts such as computer network types, computer network topologies, computer network architectures, and computer network components were born. As such, a computer network represented one of humanity’s most significant inventions in communication. That said, simply think about the internet, and you will immediately understand how great of a benefit a computer network is to society. More computers were connected to computer networks, and geographical distances were diminished in communication. Therefore, it created a need for well-defined terms and concepts to describe computer networking. Because of that, different types of computer networks, network topologies, architectures, and components have emerged.

Let’s begin by understanding what a computer network is.

What is a computer network?

Merriam-Webster defines a network as “a group of people or organizations that are closely linked and that work with each other.” Furthermore, from the same dictionary, networking is defined as the “exchange of information or services among individuals, groups or institutions.” These definitions will serve as a simple, clear, and concrete way to define computer networks next.

From what was mentioned in the preceding paragraph, a computer network is a group of computers connected through networking devices and networking media to share resources. Usually, when talking about resources, they can be data, network services, and peripheral devices. So, anyone with experience with computer networks has seen that sharing files, applications, printers, and other peripheral devices is simple. Yet, people often confuse what a computer network is with what a computer network does. While the former explains what constitutes a computer network, the latter shows the benefits we get out of it. That is best illustrated in Figure 1.1, where you can see that a computer network is indeed a group of computers connected to share resources:

Figure 1.1 – A typical computer network

A computer network is divided into different types. Let’s take a look at each of them individually.

The types of computer networks

Indeed, the most exciting thing about a computer network is the process of designing and building one. The design and deployment of computer networks are linked to the definition of networking itself. Therefore, the minimal requirement for building a computer network is that there must be two computers. The number of computers on a particular computer network and how they access the resources from the same network determine the categorization of computer network types, which will be explained in the following section.

In general, the categorization of computer networks consists of the area they cover and the purpose they serve. The following subsections describe some of the most popular computer networks used today.

Personal area network

A Personal Area Network (PAN), as shown in Figure 1.2, is a computer network that connects and transmits data between devices in a private area. This so-called private area refers to the space that belongs to an individual. For example, at a working desk at home, you can have your laptop, smartphone, printer, and headphones connected to a PAN via Bluetooth. Bluetooth and Wi-Fi are the most common communication technologies to interconnect devices in a PAN. Often, a PAN is also known as a Home Area Network (HAN):

Figure 1.2 – A PAN

Another type of network is the Local Area Network (LAN). However, its coverage is far greater than a PAN. Let’s learn more about it in the next section.

Local area network

A LAN, as shown in Figure 1.3, is a computer network that connects two or more computers within a local area. Imagine a local area as one single room, a floor, several floors, a building, or several buildings adjacent to each other at a distance that Ethernet communication technology IEEE 802.3 permits. Usually, a LAN utilizes a central device that uses twisted pair, coaxial, or fiber optic cables as a networking media to interconnect computers.

Now that you have learned about PAN, it will be easier to understand what LAN is. Next, let’s compare it with the PAN. A PAN is dominated by portable devices (smartphones), while a LAN mainly consists of fixed appliances. Both computer networks cover the local area. However, the LAN has more extensive coverage than the PAN. For example, a LAN can cover a single floor of the building, several floors of the building, an entire building, or even a few buildings close to one another. Furthermore, while a PAN is primarily organized around a person, a LAN is organized around a site:

Figure 1.3 – A LAN

The next type of network we will look at is the Metropolitan Area Network (MAN). Its coverage is even more significant than a LAN.

Metropolitan area network

In contrast to a LAN, a MAN, as shown in Figure 1.4, represents a group of LANs interconnected within the geographical boundary of a town or city. As was the case with the PAN and the LAN, the MAN’s existence is the need for sharing and accessing the resources inside the city or metro. As a result, a MAN is larger than a LAN in terms of coverage and smaller than a Wide Area Network (WAN). At the same time, the MAN is faster than the LAN and the WAN in data transmission speeds. Nowadays, fiber optics and gigabit Layer 3 switches interconnect LANs and route the traffic, thus enabling MAN’s high speeds:

Figure 1.4 – A MAN

Finally, we will understand a WAN with the most significant coverage.

Wide area network

A WAN covers areas that a LAN or a MAN does not cover. Therefore, unlike a MAN, a WAN, as shown in Figure 1.5, is a computer network covering a wide geographic area using dedicated telecommunication lines such as telephone lines, leased lines, or satellites. As such, WANs do not have geographic restrictions. The internet is the best example of a WAN:

Figure 1.5 – A WAN

Important note

You can learn more about the types of computer networks at https://www.lifewire.com/lans-wans-and-other-area-networks-817376.

Now that we’ve understood the different types of computer networks, let’s look at the underlying components that make up those networks.

Just as PCs have components, computer networks have their components, too. Usually, while PCs and peripheral devices are known to most people, IT professionals mostly understand components such as networking devices, networking media, and NOSes.

First, let’s understand what clients and servers in a computer network are.

Clients and servers

Let’s assume that the network resource is the reference point for clients and servers. Then, in a computer network, clients usually request access to resources. On the other hand, servers are responsible for providing resources and managing access to those resources. Both clients and servers play an active role in the computer network. For example, in Figure 1.6, a server with a directly connected printer provides print services to PCs in the role of print requesters:

Figure 1.6 – The client and server in a computer network

Important note

Interestingly, the origin of the word servers comes from the word serve. If you search for the word serve in the Merriam-Webster dictionary, among the results, you will find one that says "to provide services that benefit or help". Therefore, we can think of a server in a computer network as the computer that provides services to clients. In conclusion, the server serves the clients.

Although clients and servers are the most critical components of a computer network, they take a different naming approach in computer network terminology. So, let’s see how that fits into this structure.

Hosts and nodes

Have you heard about hosts and nodes and wondered what they are? Our first impressions might make us think that hosts and nodes are the same, but they are not! While all hosts can be nodes, not every node can be a host. Hence, a host represents any device with an IP address assigned to its network interface that requests or provides networking services. Usually, clients, servers, and routers act as hosts.

Important note

An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a logical element of decimal numbers separated by a dot. It is assigned to the host’s network interface to identify it in a computer network.

However, a node is any device that can receive and transmit the network traffic but has no interface with an IP address assigned to it. However, nodes have a network interface that is used for their management. For example, in Figure 1.7, the PCs and the file server act as hosts, while switches act as nodes:

Figure 1.7 – Hosts and nodes within a computer network

Now that we have learned what a network is and its components, we can understand its architecture.

Talking about computer networks usually involves discussions about the essential and broader concepts, for example, the elements that make up a computer network. In this debate, the computer network types deal with the area coverage, whereas physical and logical topologies deal with the computer network’s physical arrangement and logical structure. Computer network architecture represents a framework incorporating many aspects: physical and logical topology, network components, communication protocols, and operational principles and procedures. Moreover, the computer network architecture is a design that enables computers to communicate based on the request and response paradigm. The most popular network architectures are P2P and client/server.

First, let’s understand the P2P network architecture.

P2P network architecture

P2P, often known as a workgroup, is a computer network (see Figure 1.8) where hosts have no predefined roles. Instead, they switch the roles from client to server, and vice versa, based on their actual activities on the network. For example, if PC1 requests services from PC2, PC1 acts as the client, and PC2 acts as the server. Likewise, if PC2 requests services from PC1, PC2 acts as a client, and PC1 acts as the server. Usually, PANs are the best example of a P2P network:

Figure 1.8 – A P2P computer network

Important note

P2P network architecture refers to a network model where hosts or computers are equally privileged in network participation. Each host may act as a client or server depending on the request and response paradigm. But, of course, that depends on whether it requests or provides services in that network.

The next type of network architecture is the client/server architecture.

Client/server network architecture

A client/server network architecture, or a domain-based network, is a computer network (see Figure 1.7) where hosts have a predefined role. In such networks, hosts that request services are called clients, whereas hosts that provide services are called servers. The client/server network architecture has dedicated clients and servers.

We now have a greater understanding of how a network operates. However, for a computer to communicate in a network, it requires an IP address. In more detail, we will learn about this in the next section.

For a computer to communicate within a computer network, it must have an IP address. As explained earlier, the IP address identifies the computer on that network. In addition, we encounter the term “subnet” in complex networks, which helps determine the specific network within the overall network. So far, the world of networks recognizes two IP-addressing technologies: Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) and Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6). Nevertheless, even though IPv6-addressing technology is becoming increasingly plausible, it still prefers the role of spectator in the great arena of the internet, in which IPv4-addressing technology continues to be the norm.

First, let’s take a look at IPv4 network addresses.

IPv4 network addresses

A computer must have an IPv4 address assigned to its network interface to communicate. Therefore, an IPv4 addressing technology is often referred to as just an IP address in its most straightforward format. The v4 label represents the fourth version of IP addressing specified in the IETF publication, RCF 791. It is a logical element in a network that consists of 32 bits organized into four octets with 8 bits each, divided by a decimal point for simplicity of interpretation (for example, 192.168.1.1). Additionally, IETF’s RFC 791 document organizes IP addresses into 8-bit, 16-bit, or 24- bit prefixes. That introduces the classful addressing that enables IP addresses to be classified as A, B, C, D, and E. The classful addressing organizes the IPv4 addresses into the bits used for the network and the host portions for a given class. From what has been said about IPv4, if you think that internet traffic is realized mainly through IPv4 addresses, I will tell you that you are not wrong:

Table 1.1 – IPv4 classes and their corresponding ranges

Now, let’s look at the IPv6 addressing technology introduced to overcome the IPv4 address exhaustion of IPv4 network addresses.

IPv6 network addresses

Today, internet traffic is supposed to be IPv6 -driven, but it is not. However, at the time of writing, according to Google IPv6 statistics, 32.57% of internet traffic is managed by IPv6 addressing technology, which is not bad! Therefore, an IPv6 addressing technology is another logical element in identifying a device on a computer network. The label, v6, represents the sixth version of IP addressing, as specified in the IETF publication, RFC 2460. Unlike IPv4, IPv6 is a 128-bit address size of 8 hextets with 16 bits each, divided by a colon for simplicity of interpretation (for example, 2001:0DB8:85A3:0000:0000:8A2E:0370:7334). The fact that IPv6 uses 128 bits makes it possible to use 2,128 IPv6 addresses, which gives an approximate number of 340 undecillion IPv6 addresses. Undoubtedly, that represents a vast number of available IPv6 addresses.

Next, we look at IPv4 subnetting, which is vital in identifying the network addresses.

IPv4 subnetting

Subnetting represents a logical division of one extensive network into multiple smaller networks. A subnet mask plays an essential role in identifying the network and determining the size of the subnet. Additionally, subnetting enables you to specify a given network’s network address, host addresses, and broadcast address. A subnet mask is a 32-bit address combined with an IPv4 address to indicate a network and its hosts.

The default subnet masks, otherwise known as classful networks, for each class of IPv4 addresses are shown in Table 1.2:

Table 1.2 – The IPv4 classful networks

Important note

You can learn more about IPv4-addressing technology, address space exhaustion, and classful networks at https://blogs.igalia.com/dpino/2017/05/25/ipv4-exhaustion/.

So far, we have understood what a computer network is and the various types, components, and architectures available. The following section will introduce Windows Server and its related concepts.

Since we have already provided a basic definition for the server, we will introduce Windows Server in this section. Throughout its history, Windows Server has evolved from a simple file server to an OS capable of handling network services in complex environments such as corporate networks. Therefore, Windows Server can provide network services such as domain controllers, web servers, print servers, and file servers. In addition, it often acts as a separate platform in which enterprise applications such as Exchange Server, SQL Server, SharePoint Server, and others are executed. With its robust performance and advanced security, nowadays, Windows Server is shaping cloud computing.

Server hardware and software

As you might recall, computer hardware and software represent physical and logical components. Therefore, since the server’s primary role is to provide network services to the clients, a server requires powerful hardware. That is because software such as Windows Server is designed to provide advanced network services. Therefore, its hardware must be durable and high-quality materials to deliver services and support network-based operations continually. Aside from distinguishing itself from the ordinary computer, a server is also specific in the types of services it provides. For example, a database server requires more memory capacity and storage space.

The Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, disk, and network are key hardware components. As such, these components affect the overall performance of servers. Therefore, it is recommended that the actual performance of system components is continuously monitored to maintain the optimal performance of servers for both regular and heavy workloads.

First, let’s understand what a CPU is.

CPU

A CPU, or processor, is a chip on a server’s motherboard. In literature, you often encounter the term computer’s brain. That is a component that does all the processing and calculations. Intel and AMD are the biggest CPU manufacturers for PCs and servers. Their newest CPUs on the market are based on 64-bit architecture, which differs from 32-bit architecture-based processors. In 64-bit architecture, 64 bits of data are exchanged between the CPU and RAM in each communication session. On the other hand, in 32-bit architecture, only 32 bits of data are exchanged per communication session between RAM and the CPU. That is 50% less data being communicated via a 32-bit architecture compared to a 64-bit architecture.

To give out performance, the CPU depends on RAM. Let’s learn about that in the next section.

Memory

RAM represents the server’s working memory used by Windows Server 2022 and the server’s applications. Therefore, the more RAM there is on the server, the more multitasking can be performed, which can be interpreted as more applications running simultaneously. You can learn more about RAM in the Memory section of Chapter 10, Tuning and Maintaining Windows Server 2022.

Now, let's understand what a disk is in a server.

Disks

As you know, data is usually stored on a disk. In the case of servers, they mostly have more than one disk, referred to as the server’s disk subsystem. As for disk performance, read/write speed is an element that must be considered because the faster the disk’s throughput, the higher the performance of your disk subsystem. In terms of disk technology used in the server, usually, we encounter types such as Solid State Drive (SSD) and Hard Disk Drive (HDD). SSD has no moving parts and contains high read and writing speeds. In contrast, HDD has moving parts and durability and contains high-capacity storage spaces.

Now, let’s understand what a network interface is.

Network interface

A network interface enables the server to connect to an organization’s LAN and the internet. Usually, servers have more than one network interface. That is because the faster the server’s network connection speed is, the more data the server can send and receive to and from the network.

Now that we have understood a server, let’s look at the various server sizes, form factors, and shapes.

Server sizes, form factors, and shapes

Essentially, the server is a computer, so everything that applies to the form factor of the laptop also applies to the form factor of the server. So, the question that arises is, what is a form factor? A form factor is a hardware design that defines and describes an electronic device’s size, shape, and technical specifications. So, in terms of size, shape, and tech specs, today’s servers are presented in the following three form factors:

• As their name suggests, rack-mountable servers are usually built to be mounted inside a rack. These servers are considered general-purpose computers and can support various applications and network services. In addition, these servers usually populate on-premises server rooms or data centers. And because of their weight, these servers are fixed to the rack, as shown in Figure 1.9:

Figure 1.9 – An HP server in a rack

• Blade servers are modular servers that allow multiple servers to be deployed within a smaller area. They are thin in design and contain mainly the CPU, memory, network interface, and storage disks. Put simply, blade servers usually populate data centers or supercomputer facilities. That is because they can fit multiple servers on a single shelf, providing high processing power.
• Tower servers refer to a type of server that looks identical to a PC’s vertical case. However, they contain very advanced hardware and, as a result, offer higher processing power when compared to ordinary PCs. Usually, these servers are used for testing or local services in a Small Office/Home Office (SOHO).

Important note

A 64-bit Windows server installed on a 64-bit hardware server can process double the amount of data compared to a 32-bit Windows server installed on a 32-bit hardware server.

The server has an OS that enables network services such as a computer. Let’s learn more about it next.

A NOS is software capable of managing, maintaining, and providing services within a network. Additionally, a NOS can share files and applications, provide web services, provide authentication and authorization, control access to resources, administer users and computers, provide tools for configuration, maintain and provide resources, and perform other functions related to network resources. With that in mind, a NOS is crucial for managing computer network resources.

These days, Windows Server, Linux Server, and macOS Server versions are all considered NOSes because they can provide network services. So, let’s understand each one of them individually.

Windows Server overview

As you know, in general, Windows OS is a Microsoft product. The same applies to Windows Server. Therefore, its server line began with Windows NT 3.5 in the early 1990s, followed by other Windows Server versions, starting with Windows 2000 Server. Windows Server has a Graphical User Interface (GUI)-based OS at its core. However, as of Windows Server 2008, a Server Core edition has been introduced, a Command-Line Interface (CLI)-based OS. From Windows Server 2003 to Windows Server 2008, the architecture was 32-bit and 64-bit; however, since Windows Server 2012, it’s only 64-bit. The New Technology File System (NTFS) remains its native filesystem. However, with Windows Server 2012, the Resilient File System (ReFS) was introduced to replace NTFS. Regardless, in Windows Server 2022 (see Figure 1.10), NTFS is a native filesystem, whereas ReFS is used in database applications. Nowadays, Windows Server powers both on-premises and cloud network services:

Figure 1.10 – The NTFS continues to be used by Windows Server 2022

An overview of ReFS can be found at https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows-server/storage/refs/refs-overview.

Linux Server overview

If something is interesting to talk about in the world of OSs, the Linux OS is unequivocal. That is because the world of technology does not recognize any innovative initiatives as having gathered more volunteers than Linux has. Everything started as a desire to improve functionality in an existing OS such as MINIX. Instead of an enhanced MINIX, it turned out that, in the early 1990s, Linus Torvalds had developed a new OS called Linux. So, the GNU GPL project took over the licensing of Linux, and a penguin became the Linux mascot. The first Linux booklet published was called Linux Installation and Getting Started, and the first Linux virus was Bliss.

Journal and Linux Weekly News marked the first-release Linux magazines. And just like that, many other global activities followed that would form the so-called Linux community, which turned out to be one of the world’s largest volunteer communities, contributing globally to the further development of Linux. Nowadays, Linux servers (see Figure 1.11) power most web servers and supercomputers due to their security and open source nature, both on-premises and on cloud:

Figure 1.11 – Downloading Ubuntu Server from ubuntu.com

You can find out how to run the Linux subsystem on Windows Server 2022 at https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/wsl/install-on-server.

macOS Server overview

Although macOS Server might have a smaller percentage of use than the Windows Server and Linux Server OSs, its most positive characteristic is its reliability. At its core, macOS Server is a modified Unix OS that already conforms to the familiar Apple GUI for Mac computers. Like Windows and Linux, macOS Server is also offered on 32-bit and 64-bit platforms. However, since Apple was designated to use Intel processors for their computers and servers, macOS Server is distributed only on 64-bit. Although we cannot tell the exact number of servers powered by macOS Server, Apple continues to release new versions of its macOS Server (see Figure 1.12) and support it:

Figure 1.12 – Downloading macOS Server from the Mac App Store

You can learn more about macOS servers at https://www.apple.com/macos/server/.

In this section, we have understood what a server is and learned about server hardware such as CPUs, memory, disks, and network interfaces. Additionally, we have understood server sizes, form factors, shapes, and NOSs. Moreover, we have become acquainted with Windows Server, Linux Server, and macOS Server. In the next section, we will extend our learning of Windows Server.

What would your answer be if someone asked you what Windows Server is? I guess your answer would be more or less like the following: Windows Server is the server OS developed by Microsoft as part of the Windows NT family of OSs. Whether a server is based on a Windows Server, Linux Server, or macOS Server OS, it does not make any difference if the version used continues to provide adequate services within an organization’s network. However, many differences are evident when looking at them from a deployment perspective, a user-interface perspective, a managing resources perspective, and maintaining a server perspective.

Let’s look at the Windows Server timeline to understand how it has evolved over the years.

The Windows Server timeline

So far, in the 26-year history of Windows Server, including Windows NT, I think Microsoft has been quite intuitive in adopting new requirements in the server world. As a result, the Windows Server timeline looks exciting, and I want to share it with you. In particular, notice the transition of the Windows Server technology over time. Simply put, it’s impressive. The Windows Server timeline is shown in the following table:

Table 1.3 – The Windows Server timeline

In this section, you have learned about Windows Server and become acquainted with its timeline. The following section will take you through the steps for downloading Windows Server 2022.

To download Windows Server 2022 onto your Windows 11 computer, complete the following steps:

1. Press WinKey + R to open Run.
2. Enter Microsoft-edge and press Enter.
3. In Microsoft Edge, click on the address bar and press Enter.
4. Type in https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/evalcenter/, and then press Enter.
5. On the Evaluation Center page, click on the search icon in the upper-right corner, enter Windows Server 2022, and press Enter.
6. From the search results, select Windows Server 2022.
7. Select your evaluation file type (notice that you have the option to try out Windows Server 2022 in Azure), and then click on Continue.

Complete the form, as shown in Figure 1.13, and then click on Continue:

Figure 1.13 – Downloading the Windows Server 2022 evaluation

1. Select your desired language, and then click on Download.
2. Shortly after, the Windows Server 2022 download will begin. If not, you might want to click on the Download button.

Important note

Once the Windows Server 2022 download completes, you should burn the ISO file to a USB flash drive. Information about creating a bootable USB can be found at https://www.lifewire.com/how-to-burn-an-iso-file-to-a-USB-drive-2619270. Once completed, you are all set to move on with installing the Windows Server 2022 evaluation version.

In this chapter, you learned the basic concepts of computer networks and had a chance to get to know Windows Server. Specifically, you learned a computer network and were introduced to different computer networks, components, network architectures, IP addressing, and subnetting. Furthermore, you learned about server hardware and software, server sizes, form factors, shapes, and NOSs. Finally, you had a chance to view the Windows Server timeline.

The chapter included a chapter exercise that provided instructions on downloading Windows Server 2022 from the Technet Evaluation Center portal to make things more lab-oriented. With the things you have learned in this chapter, you will now understand what a computer network is and be able to identify network architectures, IP addressing, and subnetting. You’ll also be able to identify key hardware components and understand a NOS, including the Windows Server timeline.

In the following chapter, we will learn about Windows Server 2022 specifically.

1. The computer network architecture is a design that enables computers to communicate based on the request and response paradigm. [True | False]
2. ______usually request access to resources, and ______are responsible for providing resources and managing access to those resources.
3. Which of the following are considered to be computer networks?
   1. PAN
   2. LAN
   3. MAN
   4. WAN
   5. All of the above
4. Windows Server is Microsoft’s server OS as part of the Windows NT family. [True | False]
5. ______can provide network services such as domain controllers, web servers, print servers, and file servers.
6. The subnet helps to identify a specific network within the overall network. [True | False]
7. Which of the following are considered network architectures? (Choose two.)
   • P2P
   • Client/server
   • NOS
   • Network topology
8. The CPU, memory, disk, and network are the critical system components that affect the overall performance of your servers. [True | False]
9. The______represents the physical component, while the______represents the logical component of a server.
10. Which of the following are considered to be IP- addressing technologies? (Choose two.)
    1. IPv2
    2. IPv4
    3. IPv6
    4. IPv8

To learn more about the topics that were covered in this chapter, take a look at the following resources:

• What is a computer network: https://www.ibm.com/cloud/learn/networking-a-complete-guide
• Windows Server 2022 is now generally available—delivers innovation in security, hybrid, and containers: https://cloudblogs.microsoft.com/windowsserver/2021/09/01/windows-server-2022-now-generally-available-delivers-innovation-in-security-hybrid-and-containers/
• Linux vs. Windows Server: The Ultimate Comparison: https://phoenixnap.com/blog/linux-vs-microsoft-windows-servers