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Home > Data > Database Administration > Mastering PostgreSQL 10
Mastering PostgreSQL 10
Mastering PostgreSQL 10

Mastering PostgreSQL 10: Expert techniques on PostgreSQL 10 development and administration

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Mastering PostgreSQL 10

Understanding Transactions and Locking

Locking is an important topic in any kind of database. It is not enough to understand just how it works to write proper or better applications; it is also essential from a performance point of view. Without handling locks properly, your applications might not only be slow, they might also be wrong and behave in very unexpected ways. In my opinion, locking is the key to performance and having a good overview will certainly help. Therefore, understanding locking and transaction is important for administrators and developers alike. In this chapter, you will learn the following topics:

  • Working with PostgreSQL transactions
  • Understanding basic locking
  • Making use of FOR SHARE and FOR UPDATE
  • Understanding transaction isolation levels
  • Considering SSI transactions
  • Observing deadlocks and similar issues
  • Optimizing storage and managing cleanups

At...

Working with PostgreSQL transactions

PostgreSQL provides you with a highly advanced transaction machinery that offers countless features to developers and administrators alike. In this section, it is time to look at the basic concept of transactions.

The first important thing to know is that in PostgreSQL, everything is a transaction. If you send a simple query to the server, it is already a transaction. Here is an example:

test=# \x 
Expanded display is on. 
test=# SELECT now(), now(); 
             now               |             now               
-------------------------------+------------------------------
 2017-08-24 16:03:27.174253+02 | 2017-08-24 16:03:27.174253+02
(1 row)

In this case, the SELECT statement will be a separate transaction. If the same command is executed again, different timestamps will be returned.

Keep in mind that the now() function will return the transaction...

Understanding basic locking

In this section, you will learn basic locking mechanisms. The goal is to understand how locking works in general and how to get simple applications right.

To show how things work, a simple table can be created. For demonstration purposes, I will add one row to the table:

test=# CREATE TABLE  t_test (id int);  
CREATE TABLE 
test=# INSERT INTO t_test VALUES (1);  
INSERT 0 1

The first important thing is that tables can be read concurrently. Many users reading the same data at the same time won't block each other. This allows PostgreSQL to handle thousands of users without problems.

Multiple users can read the same data at the same time without blocking each other.

The question now is: what happens if reads and writes occur at the same time? Here is an example. Let us assume that the table contains one row and its id = 0:

Transaction 1

Transaction...

Making use of FOR SHARE and FOR UPDATE

Sometimes, data is selected from the database; then some processing happens in the application and, finally, some changes are made back on the database side. This is a classic example of SELECT FOR UPDATE.

Here is an example:

BEGIN;
SELECT * FROM  invoice WHERE  processed = false; 
** application magic  will  happen here  **  
UPDATE invoice SET processed = true  ...  
COMMIT;

The problem here is that two people might select the same unprocessed data. Changes made to these processed rows will then be overwritten. In short, a race condition will occur.

To solve this problem, developers can make use of SELECT FOR UPDATE. Here is how it works:

BEGIN; 
SELECT * FROM invoice WHERE processed = false FOR UPDATE; 
** application magic  will  happen here  **  
UPDATE invoice SET processed = true ...  
COMMIT;

The SELECT FOR UPDATE will lock rows...

Understanding transaction isolation levels

Up until now, you have seen how to handle locking as well as some basic concurrency. In this section, you will learn transaction isolation. To me, this is one of the most neglected topics in modern software development. Only a small fraction of software developers are actually aware of this issue, which in turn leads to mind-boggling bugs.

Here is an example of what can happen:

Transaction 1

Transaction 2

BEGIN;

SELECT sum(balance) FROM t_account;

User will see 300

BEGIN;

INSERT INTO t_account (balance) VALUES (100);

COMMIT;

SELECT sum(balance) FROM t_account;

User will see 400

COMMIT;

Most users would actually expect the left transaction to always return 300 regardless of the second transaction. However, this is not true. By default, PostgreSQL runs in the READ COMMITTED transaction...

Observing deadlocks and similar issues

Deadlocks are an important issue and can happen in every database I am aware of. Basically, a deadlock will happen if two transactions have to wait on each other.

In this section, you will see how this can happen. Let's suppose we have a table containing two rows:

CREATE TABLE t_deadlock (id int); 
INSERT INTO t_deadlock VALUES (1), (2);

The next listing shows what can happen:

Transaction 1

Transaction 2

BEGIN;

BEGIN;

UPDATE t_deadlock

SET id = id * 10

WHERE id = 1;

UPDATE t_deadlock

SET id = id * 10

WHERE id = 2;

UPDATE t_deadlock

SET id = id * 10

WHERE id = 2;

Waiting on transaction 2

UPDATE t_deadlock

SET id = id * 10

WHERE id = 1;

Waiting on transaction 2

Waiting on transaction 1

Deadlock will be resolved after one second

(deadlock_timeout)

COMMIT;

ROLLBACK;

As soon as the deadlock...

Utilizing advisory locks

PostgreSQL has a highly efficient and sophisticated transaction machinery that is capable of handling locks in a really fine-grained and efficient way. Some years ago, some people came up with the idea of using this code to synchronize applications with each other.

Thus, advisory locks were born.

When using advisory locks, it is important to mention that they won't go away on COMMIT as normal locks do. Therefore, it is really important to make sure that unlocking is done properly and in a totally reliable way.

If you decide to use an advisory lock, what you really lock is a number. So, this is not about rows or data; it is really just a number. Here is how it works:

Session 1

Session 2

BEGIN;

SELECT pg_advisory_lock(15);

SELECT pg_advisory_lock(15);

It has to wait

COMMIT;

It still has to wait

SELECT pg_advisory_unlock...

Optimizing storage and managing cleanup

Transactions are an integral part of the PostgreSQL system. However, transactions come with a small price tag attached. As already shown in this chapter, it can happen that concurrent users will be presented with different data. Not everybody will get the same data returned by a query. In addition to this, DELETE and UPDATE are not allowed to actually overwrite data as ROLLBACK would not work. If you happen to be in the middle of a large DELETE operation, you cannot be sure whether you will be able to COMMIT or not. In addition to this, data is still visible while you perform DELETE, and sometimes data is even visible once your modification has long since finished.

Consequently, this means that cleanup has to happen asynchronously. A transaction cannot clean up its own mess and COMMIT/ROLLBACK might be too early to take care of dead rows...

Summary

In this chapter, you learned transactions, locking and its logical implications, and the general architecture the PostgreSQL transaction machinery can have for storage, concurrency, and administration. You saw how rows are locked and which features are available in PostgreSQL.

In Chapter 3, Making use of Indexes, you will learn one of the most important topics in database work: indexing. You will learn about the PostgreSQL query optimizer as well as various types of indexes and their behavior.

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Key benefits

  • Your one-stop guide to mastering advanced concepts in PostgreSQL 10 with ease
  • Master query optimization, replication, and high availability with PostgreSQL
  • Extend the functionalities of your PostgreSQL instance to suit your organizational needs with minimal effort

Description

PostgreSQL is an open source database used for handling large datasets (big data) and as a JSON document database. This book highlights the newly introduced features in PostgreSQL 10, and shows you how you can build better PostgreSQL applications, and administer your PostgreSQL database more efficiently. We begin by explaining advanced database design concepts in PostgreSQL 10, along with indexing and query optimization. You will also see how to work with event triggers and perform concurrent transactions and table partitioning, along with exploring SQL and server tuning. We will walk you through implementing advanced administrative tasks such as server maintenance and monitoring, replication, recovery, high availability, and much more. You will understand common and not-so-common troubleshooting problems and how you can overcome them. By the end of this book, you will have an expert-level command of advanced database functionalities and will be able to implement advanced administrative tasks with PostgreSQL 10.

Who is this book for?

If you are a PostgreSQL data architect or an administrator and want to understand how to implement advanced functionalities and master complex administrative tasks with PostgreSQL 10, then this book is perfect for you. Prior experience of administrating a PostgreSQL database and a working knowledge of SQL are required to make the best use of this book.

What you will learn

  • Get to grips with the advanced features of PostgreSQL 10 and handle advanced SQL
  • Make use of the indexing features in PostgreSQL and fine-tune the performance of your queries
  • Work with stored procedures and manage backup and recovery
  • Master replication and failover techniques
  • Troubleshoot your PostgreSQL instance for solutions to common and not-so-common problems
  • Learn how to migrate your database from MySQL and Oracle to PostgreSQL without any hassle
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Publication date : Jan 31, 2018
Length: 428 pages
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Language : English
ISBN-13 : 9781788472296
Category :
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Concepts :
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Length: 428 pages
Edition : 1st
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ISBN-13 : 9781788472296
Category :
Data
Languages :
C
Concepts :
Database Administration
Tools :
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PostgreSQL 10 Administration Cookbook
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Table of Contents

14 Chapters
PostgreSQL Overview Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
PostgreSQL Overview
What is new in PostgreSQL 10.0?
Introducing SCRAM-SHA-256
Introducing quorum COMMIT
Introducing ICU encodings
Summary
Understanding Transactions and Locking Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Understanding Transactions and Locking
Working with PostgreSQL transactions
Understanding basic locking
Making use of FOR SHARE and FOR UPDATE
Understanding transaction isolation levels
Observing deadlocks and similar issues
Utilizing advisory locks
Optimizing storage and managing cleanup
Summary
Making Use of Indexes Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Making Use of Indexes
Understanding simple queries and the cost model
Improving speed using clustered tables
Understanding additional b-tree features
Introducing operator classes
Understanding PostgreSQL index types
Achieving better answers with fuzzy searching
Understanding full-text search - FTS
Summary
Handling Advanced SQL Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Handling Advanced SQL
Introducing grouping sets
Making use of ordered sets
Understanding hypothetical aggregates
Utilizing windowing functions and analytics
Writing your own aggregates
Summary
Log Files and System Statistics Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Log Files and System Statistics
Gathering runtime statistics
Creating log files
Summary
Optimizing Queries for Good Performance Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Optimizing Queries for Good Performance
Learning what the optimizer does
Understanding execution plans
Understanding and fixing joins
Enabling and disabling optimizer settings
Partitioning data
Adjusting parameters for good query performance
Summary
Writing Stored Procedures Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Writing Stored Procedures
Understanding stored procedure languages
Understanding various stored procedure languages
Improving stored procedure performance
Using stored procedures
Summary
Managing PostgreSQL Security Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Managing PostgreSQL Security
Managing network security
Digging into row-level security - RLS
Inspecting permissions
Reassigning objects and dropping users
Summary
Handling Backup and Recovery Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Handling Backup and Recovery
Performing simple dumps
Handling various formats
Replaying backups
Handling global data
Summary
Making Sense of Backups and Replication Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Making Sense of Backups and Replication
Understanding the transaction log
Transaction log archiving and recovery
Setting up asynchronous replication
Upgrading to synchronous replication
Making use of replication slots
Making use of CREATE PUBLICATION and CREATE SUBSCRIPTION
Summary
Deciding on Useful Extensions Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Deciding on Useful Extensions
Understanding how extensions work
Making use of contrib modules
Other useful extensions
Summary
Troubleshooting PostgreSQL Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Troubleshooting PostgreSQL
Approaching an unknown database
Inspecting pg_stat_activity
Checking for slow queries
Inspecting the log
Checking for missing indexes
Checking for memory and I/O
Understanding noteworthy error scenarios
Summary
Migrating to PostgreSQL Chevron down icon Chevron up icon
Migrating to PostgreSQL
Migrating SQL statements to PostgreSQL
Moving from Oracle to PostgreSQL
Moving from MySQL or MariaDB to PostgreSQL
Summary
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We want you to be happy with your purchase from Packtpub.com. We will not hassle you with returning print books to us. If the print book you receive from us is incorrect, damaged, doesn't work or is unacceptably late, please contact Customer Relations Team on customercare@packt.com with the order number and issue details as explained below:

  1. If you ordered (eBook, Video or Print Book) incorrectly or accidentally, please contact Customer Relations Team on customercare@packt.com within one hour of placing the order and we will replace/refund you the item cost.
  2. Sadly, if your eBook or Video file is faulty or a fault occurs during the eBook or Video being made available to you, i.e. during download then you should contact Customer Relations Team within 14 days of purchase on customercare@packt.com who will be able to resolve this issue for you.
  3. You will have a choice of replacement or refund of the problem items.(damaged, defective or incorrect)
  4. Once Customer Care Team confirms that you will be refunded, you should receive the refund within 10 to 12 working days.
  5. If you are only requesting a refund of one book from a multiple order, then we will refund you the appropriate single item.
  6. Where the items were shipped under a free shipping offer, there will be no shipping costs to refund.

On the off chance your printed book arrives damaged, with book material defect, contact our Customer Relation Team on customercare@packt.com within 14 days of receipt of the book with appropriate evidence of damage and we will work with you to secure a replacement copy, if necessary. Please note that each printed book you order from us is individually made by Packt's professional book-printing partner which is on a print-on-demand basis.

What tax is charged? Chevron down icon Chevron up icon

Currently, no tax is charged on the purchase of any print book (subject to change based on the laws and regulations). A localized VAT fee is charged only to our European and UK customers on eBooks, Video and subscriptions that they buy. GST is charged to Indian customers for eBooks and video purchases.

What payment methods can I use? Chevron down icon Chevron up icon

You can pay with the following card types:

  1. Visa Debit
  2. Visa Credit
  3. MasterCard
  4. PayPal
What is the delivery time and cost of print books? Chevron down icon Chevron up icon

Shipping Details

USA:

'

Economy: Delivery to most addresses in the US within 10-15 business days

Premium: Trackable Delivery to most addresses in the US within 3-8 business days

UK:

Economy: Delivery to most addresses in the U.K. within 7-9 business days.
Shipments are not trackable

Premium: Trackable delivery to most addresses in the U.K. within 3-4 business days!
Add one extra business day for deliveries to Northern Ireland and Scottish Highlands and islands

EU:

Premium: Trackable delivery to most EU destinations within 4-9 business days.

Australia:

Economy: Can deliver to P. O. Boxes and private residences.
Trackable service with delivery to addresses in Australia only.
Delivery time ranges from 7-9 business days for VIC and 8-10 business days for Interstate metro
Delivery time is up to 15 business days for remote areas of WA, NT & QLD.

Premium: Delivery to addresses in Australia only
Trackable delivery to most P. O. Boxes and private residences in Australia within 4-5 days based on the distance to a destination following dispatch.

India:

Premium: Delivery to most Indian addresses within 5-6 business days

Rest of the World:

Premium: Countries in the American continent: Trackable delivery to most countries within 4-7 business days

Asia:

Premium: Delivery to most Asian addresses within 5-9 business days

Disclaimer:
All orders received before 5 PM U.K time would start printing from the next business day. So the estimated delivery times start from the next day as well. Orders received after 5 PM U.K time (in our internal systems) on a business day or anytime on the weekend will begin printing the second to next business day. For example, an order placed at 11 AM today will begin printing tomorrow, whereas an order placed at 9 PM tonight will begin printing the day after tomorrow.


Unfortunately, due to several restrictions, we are unable to ship to the following countries:

  1. Afghanistan
  2. American Samoa
  3. Belarus
  4. Brunei Darussalam
  5. Central African Republic
  6. The Democratic Republic of Congo
  7. Eritrea
  8. Guinea-bissau
  9. Iran
  10. Lebanon
  11. Libiya Arab Jamahriya
  12. Somalia
  13. Sudan
  14. Russian Federation
  15. Syrian Arab Republic
  16. Ukraine
  17. Venezuela