The code in this book has been tested extensively on Ubuntu 18.04 and Ubuntu 20.04, and should work with later versions of Ubuntu if Python 3.6+ is available. With Python 3.6 installed, along with the necessary Python packages listed at the beginning of each recipe, the code should run fine on Windows and Mac OS X too. It is advised that you create and use a Python virtual environment named tf2rl-cookbook to install the packages and run the code in this book. Installing Miniconda or Anaconda for Python virtual environment management is recommended.

The complete code for each recipe in each chapter is available here: https://github.com/PacktPublishing/Tensorflow-2-Reinforcement-Learning-Cookbook.

To train RL agents for the real world, we need learning environments that are stochastic, since real-world problems are stochastic in nature. This recipe will walk you through the steps for building a Maze learning environment to train RL agents. The Maze is a simple, stochastic environment where the world is represented as a grid. Each location on the grid can be referred to as a cell. The goal of an agent in this environment is to find its way to the goal state. Consider the maze shown in the following diagram, where the black cells represent walls:

Figure 2.1 – The Maze environment

The agent's location is initialized to be at the top-left cell in the Maze. The agent needs to find its way around the grid to reach the goal located at the top-right cell in the Maze, collecting a maximum number of coins along the way while avoiding walls. The location of the goal, coins, walls, and the agent...

Value-based reinforcement learning works by learning the state-value function or the action-value function in a given environment. This recipe will show you how to create and update the value function for the Maze environment to obtain an optimal policy. Learning value functions, especially in model-free RL problems where a model of the environment is not available, can prove to be quite effective, especially for RL problems with low-dimensional state space.

Upon completing this recipe, you will have an algorithm that can generate the following optimal action sequence based on value functions:

Figure 2.3 – Optimal action sequence generated by a value-based RL algorithm with state values represented through a jet color map

Let's get started.

Getting ready

To complete this recipe, you will need to activate the tf2rl-cookbook Python/conda virtual environment and run pip install numpy...

This recipe will walk you through how to implement the temporal difference (TD) learning algorithm. TD algorithms allow us to incrementally learn from incomplete episodes of agent experiences, which means they can be used for problems that require online learning capabilities. TD algorithms are useful in model-free RL settings as they do not depend on a model of the MDP transitions or rewards. To visually understand the learning progression of the TD algorithm, this recipe will also show you how to implement the GridworldV2 learning environment, which looks as follows when rendered:

Figure 2.6 – The GridworldV2 learning environment 2D rendering with state values and grid cell coordinates

Getting ready

To complete this recipe, you will need to activate the tf2rl-cookbook Python/conda virtual environment and run pip install numpy gym. If the following import statements run without issues, you are ready to get...

This recipe provides the ingredients for building a Monte Carlo prediction and control algorithm so that you can build your RL agents. Similar to the temporal difference learning algorithm, Monte Carlo learning methods can be used to learn both the state and the action value functions. Monte Carlo methods have zero bias since they learn from complete episodes with real experience, without approximate predictions. These methods are suitable for applications that require good convergence properties. The following diagram illustrates the value that's learned by the Monte Carlo method for the GridworldV2 environment:

Figure 2.10 – Monte Carlo prediction of state values (left) and state-action values (right)

Getting ready

To complete this recipe, you will need to activate the tf2rl-cookbook Python/conda virtual environment and run pip install -r requirements.txt. If the following import...

This recipe will show you how to implement the State-Action-Reward-State-Action (SARSA) algorithm, as well as how to develop and train an agent using the SARSA algorithm so that it can act in a reinforcement learning environment. The SARSA algorithm can be applied to model-free control problems and allows us to optimize the value function of an unknown MDP.

Upon completing this recipe, you will have a working RL agent that, when acting in the GridworldV2 environment, will generate the following state-action value function using the SARSA algorithm:

Figure 2.15 – Rendering of the GridworldV2 environment – each triangle represents the action value of taking that directional action in that grid state

Getting ready

To complete this recipe, you will need to activate the tf2rl-cookbook Python/conda virtual environment and run pip install -r requirements.txt. If the following import statements run...

This recipe will show you how to build a Q-learning agent. Q-learning can be applied to model-free RL problems. It supports off-policy learning and therefore provides a practical solution to problems where available experiences were/are collected using some other policy or by some other agent (even humans).

Upon completing this recipe, you will have a working RL agent that, when acting in the GridworldV2 environment, will generate the following state-action value function using the SARSA algorithm:

Figure 2.18 – State-action values obtained using the Q-learning algorithm

Getting ready

To complete this recipe, you will need to activate the tf2rl-cookbook Python/conda virtual environment and run pip install -r requirements.txt. If the following import statements run without issues, you are ready to get started:

import numpy as np
import random

Now, let's begin.

How to do it…

Let's implement...

Policy gradient algorithms are fundamental to reinforcement learning and serve as the basis for several advanced RL algorithms. These algorithms directly optimize for the best policy, which can lead to faster learning compared to value-based algorithms. Policy gradient algorithms are effective for problems/applications with high-dimensional or continuous action spaces. This recipe will show you how to implement policy gradient algorithms using TensorFlow 2.0. Upon completing this recipe, you will be able to train an RL agent in any compatible OpenAI Gym environment.

Getting ready

To complete this recipe, you will need to activate the tf2rl-cookbook Python/conda virtual environment and run pip install -r requirements.txt. If the following import statements run without issues, you are ready to get started:

import tensorflow as tf
import tensorflow_probability as tfp
from tensorflow import keras
from tensorflow.keras import layers
import numpy as...

Actor-critic algorithms allow us to combine value-based and policy-based reinforcement learning – an all-in-one agent. While policy gradient methods directly search and optimize the policy in the policy space, leading to smoother learning curves and improvement guarantees, they tend to get stuck at the local maxima (for a long-term reward optimization objective). Value-based methods do not get stuck at local optimum values, but they lack convergence guarantees, and algorithms such as Q-learning tend to have high variance and are not very sample-efficient. Actor-critic methods combine the good qualities of both value-based and policy gradient-based algorithms. Actor-critic methods are also more sample-efficient. This recipe will make it easy for you to implement an actor-critic-based RL agent using TensorFlow 2.x. Upon completing this recipe, you will be able to train the actor-critic agent in any OpenAI Gym-compatible reinforcement learning...